Figures (2)  Tables (1)

    • Figure 1. 

      General structure of an anthocyanin with a glycosyl group at position 3[45], and the functional groups of the six most common anthoyanidins at positions 3′ and 5′.

    • Figure 2. 

      Impact of microplastics on gut microbiota and the known and proposed (dashed lines) mechanisms of action of anthocyanins in counteracting dysbiosis.

    • Category Food source Total AC content (mg/100 g FW) Major anthocyanidin aglycone(s) Anthropometrics and
      clinical parameters      		 Gut health Gut microbiota Genes Metabolism and enzymatic activity Ref.
      1. Berries Blueberry (Vaccinium sect. Cyanococcus) 57–503 Delphinidin, malvidin, cyanidin ↓Body weight gain;
      ↓fat accumulation; Improved liver damage, inflammation, glucose, and lipid metabolism; suppressed oxidative stress      		 ↓Gut permeability; ↓gut inflammation ↑Bacteroidota, Prevotella, and Oscillospira; ↓Actinobacterium, Allobaculum, and Bifidobacterium, Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio Restoration of SCFA [106−109]
      Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) 350–525 Cyanidin, delphinidin ↑Intestinal barrier function ↑Akkermansia, Aspergillus, Lactobacillus, Bacteroides, Parabacteroides, and Clostridia; ↓Verrucomicrobia and Euryarchaeota ↓AOX1, ↓CYP2E1, ↓TXNIP, ↓JAM-A, ↓VEGFR2, ↑CRB3, ↑CLDN14, ↑CDH4 ↓Digestive enzyme activity [110−113]
      Blackberry
      (Rubus spp.)      		 177–313 Cyanidin, delphinidin ↓Body weight gain;
      ↓fat accumulation; Improved liver damage, inflammation, glucose, and lipid metabolism      		 ↑Bacteroidota, Prevotella, and Oscillospira; ↓Actinobacterium, Allobaculum, and Bifidobacterium Restoration of SCFA; ↑Kynurenic acid [43,106,114]
      Black raspberry (Rubus occidentalis) 687 Cyanidin ↑Akkermansia, Desulfovibrio, Bacteroidetes, Barnessiella, and butyrate-producing bacteria; ↓Bacillota and Clostridium Regulation of short-chain and medium-chain fatty acids, polar metabolites, and phenolic metabolism [43,115−117]
      Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) 112–169 Peonidin, cyanidin Alleviated IBD symptoms Alleviated colonic ferroptosis and inflammation ↓Lactobacillus, Proteobacteria, and Escherichia-Shigella Modulated ferroptosis-associated genes (↑GPX4, ↑SLC7A11, and ↑HO-1) ↑SCFA; Restored glutathione (GSH) levels [43,118]
      Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) 18–42 Pelargonidin ↑Bifidobacterium; ↓Verrucomicrobia [43,119]
      Elderberry (Sambucus nigra) 1375 Cyanidin ↓Blood pressure; ↓Glycemia; Immune system stimulation No activation of Nrf2 ↑Activity of antioxidant enzymes in plasma; ↑Glutathione;
      ↓Uric acid      		 [43,120,121]
      Crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) 402–675 Delphinidin, cyanidin Restored TEER loss; ↓FITC-dextran transport induced by TNF-α [122,123]
      Chokeberry
      (Aronia spp.)      		 357–1,480 Cyanidin ↑Flow-mediated dilation ↑Anaerostipes, Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, Blautia, Faecalibaterium, Prevotella, Akkermansia; ↓Escherichia-Shigella, Megamonas, Prevotella, Bacillota:Bacteroidota ratio ↑FXR, TGR5 ↓Total bile acids [41,43,124,
      125]
      Blackcurrant
      (Ribes nigrum)      		 476–591 Delphinidin, cyanidin ↑Bacteroidetes; ↓Verrucomicrobia and Bacillota:Bacteroidota ratio [126]
      Açaí
      (Euterpe oleracea)      		 97–410 Cyanidin ↓Body weight, hepatic steatosis, insulin resistance ↑Akkermansia; ↓Bacteroides/Prevotella, Hathewaya ↑SCFA [127−130]
      Black goji berry, black wolfberry (Lycium ruthenicum) 470–530 Petunidin ↓Body weight gain ↑Intestinal barrier function ↑Akkermansia, Alistipes, Allisonella, Bacteroides, Barnesiella, Bifidobacterium, Coprobacter, Eisenbergiella, Muribaculaceae, Odoribacter, Ruminococcaceae; ↓Bacillota:Bacteroidota ratio ↑mRNA IL-10, ZO-1, OCLN, CLDN-1 and MUC1; ↓mRNA TLR4, NF-κB, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, MCP-1, TGF-β1, GPR5, iNOS, COX-2, and IFN-γ ↑SCFA; ↓lipopolysaccharides [131−135]
      2. Other fruits Cherry
      (Prunus avium)      		 101–143 Cyanidin, peonidin ↑Antioxidant capacity ↓the release of IL-6 and IL-8 production in intestinal cells and glutathione peroxidase activity stimulated by cytokine [43,90,136]
      Grape (Vitis spp.) 16–120 Malvidin, delphinidin, peonidin ↑Bacteroidota, Prevotellaceae, and Erysipelotrichaceae; ↓Desulfovibrionaceae and Spreptoccaceae ↑mRNA Lyz1 [43,137]
      Plum
      (Prunus domestica)      		 15–146 Cyanidin ↓Blood pressure; ↓Fasting plasma insulin, glucose, leptin, inflammatory cytokines [43,138,139]
      Pomegranate (Punica granatum) 17–39 Delphinidin, cyanidin ↓body weight gain; ↓Steatosis scores; ↓Insulin resistance index ↑Bacteroidota, Akkermansia, Parabacteroides, Anaerotruncus, and Lachnoclostridium;
      ↓Bacillota and Proteobacteria      		 Improved gene expression profiles involved in glucose and lipid metabolism (↑Cpt1b; ↑Hepatic lipase; ↑Insig1; ↑Insig2; ↑Irs2; ↓Pepck; ↓G6pc) ↓Pancreatic lipase [140,141]
      Blood orange (Citrus × sinensis) 1–17 Cyanidin; malonated anthocyanins Improved blood pressure and plasma VCAM-1; ↓Fasting glucose; ↓Insulin; ↓HOMA.IR Significant associations between Bacteroidota, Prevotella 9, and cardiometabolic biomarkers [142,143]
      3. Vegetables Red cabbage (Brassica oleracea) 281–363 Cyanidin ↓IL-1β; ↓IL-6 ↑Butyrate-producing bacteria Promoted MAPK signaling pathway [43,144]
      Purple carrot (Daucus carota ssp. sativus) 40–50 Cyanidin, pelargonidin ↓body weight gain; ↓Triglycerides; Improved high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio ↓Cecal pH ↑α- and β-Glucosidase; α- and β-Galactosidade; β-glucuronidase; ↑Total cecal SCFA [145−147]
      Eggplant (Solanum melongena) 86 Delphinidin (e.g., nasunin) Inhibitory activity against lipoxygenase (LOX), lipase, and α-amylase [43,148]
      Purple sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) 52–175 Peonidin, cyanidin ↓body weight gain; ↓Triglycerides; ↓total cholesterol ↑Akkermansia, Bifidobacterium, and Lactobacillus ↓TLR-4; ↓NF-κB; ↓interleukin 6; ↓tumor necrosis factor α; Preserved Nrf2 gene expression ↑serum activities of glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, catalase; ↑SCFAs; ↓malondialdehyde; ↓lipopolysaccharides [149−151]
      Purple cauliflower (Brassica oleracea) 71–77 Anthocyanins ↑Neurotransmitters ↑tyrosine receptor kinase B; ↑brain-derive neurotrophic factor (BDNF); ↑phosphorylation levels of ERK1/2 and CREB [152,153]
      Red onion
      (Allium cepa)      		 49 Cyanidin Prevented lipid ester hydrolysis; Conferred protective effect against phospholipase Inhibited pancreatic lipase [43,154]
      4. Grains and legumes Black rice
      (Oryza sativa)      		 5–168 Cyanidin, peonidin ↓body weight gain; ↓serum triglycerides; ↓total cholesterol ; ↓non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; Improved blood glucose, insulin resistance, serum oxidative stress state, lipid metabolism and inflammatory cytokines levels, and alleviated liver damage. ↑Villus height (ileum and caecum); ↑Goblet cell number per villus of the colon; Positive effect on TEER and FITC-dextran permeability ↑Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, Akkermansia, Phascolarctobacterium, Bacteroides, and Coprococcus; ↓Bacillota:Bacteroidota ratio ↑mRNA of JAM-A, occludin and Muc-2; ↑Genes involved in cholesterol uptake and efflux; Regulated AMPKα; Preserved CYP7A1, ATP-binding cassette subfamily G member 5/8 mRNA expression ↑Cecal SCFA; ↑fecal sterols excretion [76,123,
      155,156]
      Purple maize
      (Zea mays)      		 93–1640 Cyanidin, pelargonidin, peonidin ↑antioxidant potential; ↑Fatty acid oxidation; ↓body weight gain; ↓serum triglycerides; ↓total cholesterol ; ↓Epididymal fat mass ↓PPARγ; ↓C/EBPα; ↓SREBP-1c; ↑PPARα; ↑PGC1α,; ↑PRDM16; ↑FGF21; Promoted Hepatic AMPK activity Improved rumen volatile fatty acids [157−159]
      Black bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) 213 Cyanidin Improved blood glucose, insulin resistance, serum oxidative stress state, lipid metabolism and inflammatory cytokines levels, and alleviated liver damage. ↑Akkermansia, Phascolarctobacterium, Bacteroides, and Coprococcus Activated AMPK, PI3K, and AKT; Inhibited HMGCR, G6pase and PEPCK expression [155,160]
      5. Beverages and processed foods Red wine 6–12 Malvidin, delphinidin, peonidin ↓BMI ↑α-diversity, Bifidobacterium, Enterococcus, and Eggerthella lenta [161−163]
      Hibiscus tea (Hibiscus sabdariffa) 35–66 Delphinidin, cyanidin ↓serum triglycerides; ↑Antioxidant capacity; ↑IL10 Superoxide dismutase; ↑Malondialdehyde; ↑Lysozymes [164,165]

      Table 1. 

      Food sources of anthocyanins, typical anthocyanin concentrations in the foods, and effects on host and gut microbiota associated with anthocyanins.