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Figure 1. 

Biohybrids for sustainable chemical synthesis. These systems leverage diverse energy inputs, a wide range of abiotic materials, and various biotic components to produce valuable products from multiple substrates.

Figure 2. 

MES based on biocathode architectures and strategies to address their limitations.

Figure 3. 

SSE-based electrocatalytic–biocatalytic tandem systems and strategies to address the associated limitations. (a) Schematic illustration of an SSE-based electrocatalytic–biocatalytic tandem system. (b) Rational modulation of the interfacial microenvironment to improve the CO₂ reduction efficiency. (c) Application of chemical additives to enhance CO₂ reduction performance, with consideration of their potential impacts on microbial metabolism. (d) Two-step conversion pathway in which CO₂ is first reduced to CO, followed by microbial conversion of CO to acetate; alternatively, this process can be facilitated by genetically engineered microbial strains.

Figure 4. 

Representative organic and inorganic semiconductors and studies on semi-artificial photosynthetic systems. (a) The conduction band (CB) and valence band (VB) of common semiconductors. Reproduced with permission from Song et al.^[53]. (b) Biotic and abiotic CH₄ production under anoxic dark and oxic light conditions with oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria. Reproduced with permission from Ye et al.^[180]. (c) Engineering a microbial ecosystem to balance electron generation and utilization. Reproduced with permission from Kalathil et al.^[167]. (d) Capacitive modification of biohybrid interfaces. Reproduced with permission from Hu et al.^[166].

Figure 5. 

Biohybrids with hydrovoltaic energy and mechanical energy input. (a) Schematic diagram of hydrovoltaic electron generation within a biofilm supporting microbial growth. Reproduced with permission from Ren et al.^[191]. (b) Schematic diagram of mechanically driven denitrification. Reproduced with permission from Ye et al.^[192].