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Figure 1. 

Schematic showing the redundant signaling pathway employed by tumor cells for survival. In the diagram, extracellular matrix, GPCR, growth factors, etc. activate FAK, triggering a series of intrinsic adaptive regulatory mechanisms such as intracellular signal transduction, which in turn regulate processes like cell survival, proliferation, and migration.

Figure 2. 

Schematic showing gut microbiota as a signaling hub in the bidirectional crosstalk between the gut and brain. Gut microbiota: Interacts with factors (diet, probiotics, antibiotics) to impact composition, byproducts, metabolism, and immunity. Immune system: uses immune cells (T cells, B cells, and plasma cells) and cytokines to mediate gut-body communication. Endocrine and nervous systems: enable gut-brain communication via the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and neural pathways, influencing gut and neural functions.

Figure 3. 

Schematic illucidation of the relationship between targetome and polypharmacology. Within the triangular systems-level drug discovery framework, 'targetome' represents a much broader concept in comparison with polypharmacology (multitarget drug action, e.g., aspirin on COX-1/2), both of which fit into the system-level strategies in dissecting the disease pathway networks, and holistic drug development.

Figure 4. 

Proposal of three stages in the discovery and development of combination drugs. Step 1: combinations of clinical drugs and herbal medicine are adopted for the exploration of combination therapies. Step 2: original drugs are combined with approved ones. Step 3: de novo discovery of combination drugs is carried out based on targetome and phenotype screening.