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Figure 1. 

The survival of ASB and ARB under sub-lethal photocatalysis conditions.

Figure 2. 

The generation of intracellular ROS and the activities of the antioxidative system under sub-lethal photocatalysis. (a) ROS changes of recipient bacteria. (b) CAT changes of recipient bacteria. (c) SOD changes of recipient bacteria. (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001).

Figure 3. 

The determination of optimal transformation conditions for ARGs under sub-lethal photocatalysis. (a) Effect of different transformation culture temperatures on transformation frequency. (b) Effect of different initial concentrations of recipient bacteria on transformation frequency.

Figure 4. 

Under optimal conditions, the effects of sub-lethal photocatalysis on ARG transformation frequency with and without the addition of ROS scavengers. (a) Without ROS scavengers. (b) With ROS scavengers (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001).

Figure 5. 

The physiological and morphological changes of recipient bacteria during the sub-PC process. (a) Intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration. (b) Extracellular protein content. (c) The morphology in SEM. (d) Intracellular ATP concentration (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001).

Figure 6. 

Gene expression under sub-lethal photocatalysis. (a) E. coli DH5α-related genes. (b) E. coli HB101-related genes.

Figure 7. 

Underlying mechanisms of sub-lethal photocatalysis on ARG transformation.