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Figure 1. 

Construction of vascularized organoids via cellular self-assembly. ECs and supporting cells are co-cultured in hydrogels to generate vascularized organoids, which can then be co-cultured with preformed organ-specific organoids. Alternatively, PSCs are induced to co-differentiate into vascular and organ-specific lineages within the same system, enabling intrinsic vascularization.

Figure 2. 

Comparison of bioprinting techniques for vascular construction. Extrusion-based bioprinting fabricates large, centimeter-scale structures with high cell density and mechanical strength. Laser-assisted bioprinting provides micrometer-level resolution for fine and complex vascular patterns. Droplet-based bioprinting offers moderate resolution and faster speeds, enabling rapid layer-by-layer construction of vascular features.