[1]

Gomber A, Ward ZJ, Ross C, Owais M, Mita C, et al. 2022. Variation in the incidence of type 1 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents by world region and country income group: a scoping review. PLoS Global Public Health 2(11):e0001099

doi: 10.1371/journal.pgph.0001099
[2]

Gong B, Yang W, Xing Y, Lai Y, Shan Z. 2025. Global, regional, and national burden of type 1 diabetes in adolescents and young adults. Pediatric Research 97(2):568−576

doi: 10.1038/s41390-024-03107-5
[3]

Gregory GA, Robinson TIG, Linklater SE, Wang F, Colagiuri S, et al. 2022. Global incidence, prevalence, and mortality of type 1 diabetes in 2021 with projection to 2040: a modelling study. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 10(10):741−760

doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587(22)00218-2
[4]

Ward ZJ, Yeh JM, Reddy CL, Gomber A, Ross C, et al. 2022. Estimating the total incidence of type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents aged 0–19 years from 1990 to 2050: a global simulation-based analysis. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 10(12):848−858

doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587(22)00276-5
[5]

Bauer W, Gyenesei A, Krętowski A. 2021. The multifactorial progression from the islet autoimmunity to type 1 diabetes in children. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22(14):7493

doi: 10.3390/ijms22147493
[6]

Abdellatif AM, Sarvetnick NE. 2019. Current understanding of the role of gut dysbiosis in type 1 diabetes. Journal of Diabetes 11(8):632−644

doi: 10.1111/1753-0407.12915
[7]

Zhou H, Sun L, Zhang S, Zhao X, Gang X, et al. 2020. Evaluating the causal role of gut microbiota in type 1 diabetes and its possible pathogenic mechanisms. Frontiers in Endocrinology 11:125

doi: 10.3389/fendo.2020.00125
[8]

de Goffau MC, Luopajärvi K, Knip M, Ilonen J, Ruohtula T, et al. 2013. Fecal microbiota composition differs between children with β-cell autoimmunity and those without. Diabetes 62(4):1238−1244

doi: 10.2337/db12-0526
[9]

Jamshidi P, Hasanzadeh S, Tahvildari A, Farsi Y, Arbabi M, et al. 2019. Is there any association between gut microbiota and type 1 diabetes? A systematic review. Gut Pathogens 11(1):49

doi: 10.1186/s13099-019-0332-7
[10]

Davis-Richardson AG, Triplett EW. 2015. A model for the role of gut bacteria in the development of autoimmunity for type 1 diabetes. Diabetologia 58(7):1386−1393

doi: 10.1007/s00125-015-3614-8
[11]

Tapia G, Størdal K, Mårild K, Kahrs CR, Skrivarhaug T, et al. 2018. Antibiotics, acetaminophen and infections during prenatal and early life in relation to type 1 diabetes. International Journal of Epidemiology 47(5):1538−1548

doi: 10.1093/ije/dyy092
[12]

Haupt-Jørgensen M, Morgen CS, Jess T, Buschard K, Josefsen K, et al. 2018. Maternal antibiotic use during pregnancy and type 1 diabetes in children—a national prospective cohort study. Diabetes Care 41(12):e155−e157

doi: 10.2337/dc18-1764
[13]

Kilkkinen A, Virtanen SM, Klaukka T, Kenward MG, Salkinoja-Salonen M, et al. 2006. Use of antimicrobials and risk of type 1 diabetes in a population-based mother–child cohort. Diabetologia 49(1):66−70

doi: 10.1007/s00125-005-0078-2
[14]

Hakola L, Lundqvist A, Gissler M, Virta LJ, Virtanen SM, et al. 2025. Prenatal and postnatal exposure to antibiotics and the risk of type 1 diabetes in Finnish children: a registry-based study. The Journal of Pediatrics 276:114292

doi: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2024.114292
[15]

Clausen TD, Bergholt T, Bouaziz O, Arpi M, Eriksson F, et al. 2016. Broad-spectrum antibiotic treatment and subsequent childhood type 1 diabetes: a nationwide Danish cohort study. PLoS One 11(8):e0161654

doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161654
[16]

Wernroth ML, Fall K, Svennblad B, Ludvigsson JF, Sjölander A, et al. 2020. Early childhood antibiotic treatment for otitis media and other respiratory tract infections is associated with risk of type 1 diabetes: a nationwide register-based study with sibling analysis. Diabetes Care 43(5):991−999

doi: 10.2337/dc19-1162
[17]

Antvorskov JC, Morgen CS, Buschard K, Jess T, Allin KH, et al. 2020. Antibiotic treatment during early childhood and risk of type 1 diabetes in children: a national birth cohort study. Pediatric Diabetes 21(8):1457−1464

doi: 10.1111/pedi.13111
[18]

Cardwell CR, Carson DJ, Patterson CC. 2008. No association between routinely recorded infections in early life and subsequent risk of childhood-onset Type 1 diabetes: a matched case–control study using the UK General Practice Research Database. Diabetic Medicine 25(3):261−267

doi: 10.1111/j.1464-5491.2007.02351.x
[19]

Lee D, Choi S, Chang J, Park YJ, Kim JH, et al. 2022. Association of antibiotics exposure within the first 2 years after birth with subsequent childhood type 1 diabetes. Endocrine 77(1):21−29

doi: 10.1007/s12020-022-03042-7
[20]

Kemppainen KM, Vehik K, Lynch KF, Larsson HE, Canepa RJ, et al. 2017. Association between early-life antibiotic use and the risk of islet or celiac disease autoimmunity. JAMA Pediatrics 171(12):1217

doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2017.2905
[21]

Zhou H, Sun L, Zhang S, Zhao X, Gang X, et al. 2021. The crucial role of early-life gut microbiota in the development of type 1 diabetes. Acta Diabetologica 58(3):249−265

doi: 10.1007/s00592-020-01563-z
[22]

Fenneman AC, Rampanelli E, Yin YS, Ames J, Blaser MJ, et al. 2020. Gut microbiota and metabolites in the pathogenesis of endocrine disease. Biochemical Society Transactions 48(3):915−931

doi: 10.1042/bst20190686
[23]

Fenneman AC, Weidner M, Chen LA, Nieuwdorp M, Blaser MJ. 2023. Antibiotics in the pathogenesis of diabetes and inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology 20(2):81−100

doi: 10.1038/s41575-022-00685-9
[24]

Hu Y, Wong FS, Wen L. 2017. Antibiotics, gut microbiota, environment in early life and type 1 diabetes. Pharmacological Research 119:219−226

doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2017.01.034
[25]

Huang H, Jiang J, Wang X, Jiang K, Cao H. 2024. Exposure to prescribed medication in early life and impacts on gut microbiota and disease development. eClinicalMedicine 68:102428

doi: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2024.102428
[26]

Ramirez J, Guarner F, Bustos Fernandez L, Maruy A, Sdepanian VL, et al. 2020. Antibiotics as major disruptors of gut microbiota. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 10:572912

doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.572912
[27]

Williamson DA, Roos R, Verrall A, Smith A, Thomas MG. 2016. Trends, demographics and disparities in outpatient antibiotic consumption in New Zealand: a national study. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 71(12):3593−3598

doi: 10.1093/jac/dkw345
[28]

Zhang C, Li L, Jin B, Xu X, Zuo X, et al. 2021. The effects of delivery mode on the gut microbiota and health: state of art. Frontiers in Microbiology 12:724449

doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.724449
[29]

Korpela K. 2021. Impact of delivery mode on infant gut microbiota. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 77:11−19

doi: 10.1159/000518498
[30]

Milne BJ, Atkinson J, Blakely T, Day H, Douwes J, et al. 2019. Data resource profile: the New Zealand integrated data infrastructure (IDI). International Journal of Epidemiology 48(3):677−677e

doi: 10.1093/ije/dyz014
[31]

Milne BJ. 2022. Longitudinal research in Aotearoa New Zealand using the Integrated Data Infrastructure: a review. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 52(3):301−312

doi: 10.1080/03036758.2022.2072905
[32]

Ram S, Corbin M, 't Mannetje A, Eng A, Kvalsvig A, et al. 2025. Antibiotic use in utero and early life and risk of chronic childhood conditions in New Zealand: protocol for a data linkage retrospective cohort study. JMIR Research Protocols 14:e66184

doi: 10.2196/66184
[33]

Nogacka AM, Salazar N, Arboleya S, Suárez M, Fernández N, et al. 2018. Early microbiota, antibiotics and health. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 75(1):83−91

doi: 10.1007/s00018-017-2670-2
[34]

Drugs. com. n.d. www.drugs.com/drug_information.html
[35]

McKergow E, Parkin L, Barson DJ, Sharples KJ, Wheeler BJ. 2017. Demographic and regional disparities in insulin pump utilization in a setting of universal funding: a New Zealand nationwide study. Acta Diabetologica 54(1):63−71

doi: 10.1007/s00592-016-0912-7
[36]

Ministry of Health. 2016. Health Loss in New Zealand 1990–2013: A report from the New Zealand Burden of Diseases, Injuries and Risk Factors Study. Report. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Health Wellington. www.health.govt.nz/publications/health-loss-in-new-zealand-1990-2013
[37]

Ministry of Health. 2004. Ethnicity data protocols for the health and disability sector. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Health Wellington. www.fmhs.auckland.ac.nz/assets/fmhs/faculty/tkhm/tumuaki/docs/ethnicity-data-protocols.pdf
[38]

Atkinson J, Salmond C, Crampton P. 2019. NZDep2018 Index of Deprivation, interim research report. Interim Research Report. Wellington, New Zealand: University of Otago. www.otago.ac.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0025/327481/nzdep2018-index-of-deprivation-research-report-interim-dec-2019-730394.pdf
[39]

Nixon G, Whitehead J, Davie G, de Graaf B, Crengle S, et al. 2022. Defining rural in Aotearoa New Zealand: a novel geographic classification for health purposes. New Zealand Medical Journal 135(1559):24−40

doi: 10.26635/6965.5495
[40]

Mikkelsen KH, Knop FK, Vilsbøll T, Frost M, Hallas J, et al. 2017. Use of antibiotics in childhood and risk of Type 1 diabetes: a population-based case–control study. Diabetic Medicine 34(2):272−277

doi: 10.1111/dme.13262
[41]

Beier MA, Setoguchi S, Gerhard T, Roy J, Koffman D, et al. 2025. Early childhood antibiotics and chronic pediatric conditions: a retrospective cohort study. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 232(3):659−668

doi: 10.1093/infdis/jiaf191
[42]

Brandt S, Thorsen J, Rasmussen MA, Chawes B, Bønnelykke K, et al. 2025. Use of antibiotics in early life and development of diseases in childhood: nationwide registry study. BMJ Medicine 4(1):e001064

doi: 10.1136/bmjmed-2024-001064
[43]

Patangia DV, Anthony Ryan C, Dempsey E, Paul Ross R, Stanton C. 2022. Impact of antibiotics on the human microbiome and consequences for host health. MicrobiologyOpen 11:e1260

doi: 10.1002/mbo3.1260
[44]

Schwartz DJ, Langdon AE, Dantas G. 2020. Understanding the impact of antibiotic perturbation on the human microbiome. Genome Medicine 12(1):82

doi: 10.1186/s13073-020-00782-x
[45]

Ternák G, Berényi K, Kun S, Szigeti N, Decsi T, et al. 2021. Inverse association between use of broad spectrum penicllin with beta-lactamase inhibitors and prevalence of type 1 diabetes mellitus in Europe. Scientific Reports 11:16768

doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-96301-y
[46]

Lathakumari RH, Vajravelu LK, Satheesan A, Ravi S, Thulukanam J. 2024. Antibiotics and the gut microbiome: Understanding the impact on human health. Medicine in Microecology 20:100106

doi: 10.1016/j.medmic.2024.100106
[47]

Vangay P, Ward T, Gerber JS, Knights D. 2015. Antibiotics, pediatric dysbiosis, and disease. Cell Host & Microbe 17(5):553−564

doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2015.04.006
[48]

Zawada A, Skrzypczak-Zielińska M, Gondek S, Witkowski P, Rychter AM, et al. 2024. The role of genetic risk factors, diet, and gut microbiota in type 1 diabetes mellitus, pancreas and pancreatic islet transplantation. Endokrynologia Polska 75:140-147

doi: 10.5603/ep.98903
[49]

Lin HC, Wang CH, Tsai FJ, Hwang KP, Chen W, et al. 2015. Enterovirus infection is associated with an increased risk of childhood type 1 diabetes in Taiwan: a nationwide population-based cohort study. Diabetologia 58(1):79−86

doi: 10.1007/s00125-014-3400-z
[50]

Goff DA, Kullar R, Goldstein EJC, Gilchrist M, Nathwani D, et al. 2017. A global call from five countries to collaborate in antibiotic stewardship: united we succeed, divided we might fail. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 17(2):e56−e63

doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(16)30386-3