[1]

Teo ZL, Tham YC, Yu M, Chee ML, Rim TH, et al. 2021. Global prevalence of diabetic retinopathy and projection of burden through 2045 systematic review and meta-analysis. Ophthalmology 128:1580−1591

doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2021.04.027
[2]

Sun H, Saeedi P, Karuranga S, Pinkepank M, Ogurtsova K, et al. 2022. IDF diabetes atlas: global, regional and country-level diabetes prevalence estimates for 2021 and projections for 2045. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 183:109119

doi: 10.1016/j.diabres.2021.109119
[3]

Cooper OAE, Taylor DJ, Crabb DP, Sim DA, McBain H. 2020. Psychological, social and everyday visual impact of diabetic macular oedema and diabetic retinopathy: a systematic review. Diabetic Medicine 37:924−933

doi: 10.1111/dme.14125
[4]

Scanlon PH. 2021. The contribution of the English NHS Diabetic Eye Screening Programme to reductions in diabetes-related blindness, comparisons within Europe, and future challenges. Acta Diabetologica 58(4):521−530

doi: 10.1007/s00592-021-01687-w
[5]

Das T, Takkar B, Sivaprasad S, Thanksphon T, Taylor H, et al. 2021. Recently updated global diabetic retinopathy screening guidelines: commonalities, differences, and future possibilities. Eye 35:2685−2698

doi: 10.1038/s41433-021-01572-4
[6]

Teo ZL, Tham YC, Yu M, Cheng CY, Wong TY, et al. 2020. Do we have enough ophthalmologists to manage vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy? A global perspective. Eye 34(7):1255−1261

doi: 10.1038/s41433-020-0776-5
[7]

Wong TY, Sun J, Kawasaki R, Ruamviboonsuk P, Gupta N, et al. 2018. Guidelines on diabetic eye care the international council of ophthalmology recommendations for screening, follow-up, referral, and treatment based on resource settings. Ophthalmology 125(10):1608−1622

doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2018.04.007
[8]

Gurudas S, Frudd K, Maheshwari JJ, Revathy YR, Sivaprasad S, et al. 2022. Multicenter evaluation of diagnostic circulating biomarkers to detect sight-threatening diabetic retinopathy. JAMA Ophthalmology 140(6):587

doi: 10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2022.1175
[9]

Dharmastuti DP, Agni AN, Widyaputri F, Pawiroranu S, Sofro ZM, et al. 2018. Associations of physical activity and sedentary behaviour with vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy in Indonesian population with type 2 diabetes mellitus: Jogjakarta eye diabetic study in the community (JOGED.COM). Ophthalmic Epidemiology 25(2):113−119

doi: 10.1080/09286586.2017.1367410
[10]

Fenwick EK, Xie J, Man REK, Lim LL, Flood VM, et al. 2015. Moderate consumption of white and fortified wine is associated with reduced odds of diabetic retinopathy. Journal of Diabetes and Its Complications 29(8):1009−1014

doi: 10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2015.09.001
[11]

Wang L, Liu S, Wang W, He M, Mo Z, et al. 2021. Association between ocular biometrical parameters and diabetic retinopathy in Chinese adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Acta Ophthalmologica 99(5):e661−e668

doi: 10.1111/aos.14671
[12]

An Y, Ke J, Zhao D. 2023. 27-LB: a prediction model for diabetic retinopathy based on plasma adipokines among patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 72(Supplement_1):27-LB

doi: 10.2337/db23-27-lb
[13]

Liu Y, Song Y, Tao L, Qiu W, Lv H, et al. 2017. Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy among 13473 patients with diabetes mellitus in China: a cross-sectional epidemiological survey in six provinces. BMJ Open 7(1):e013199

doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013199
[14]

Rani PK, Raman R, Sharma V, Mahuli SV, Tarigopala A, et al. 2007. Analysis of a comprehensive diabetic retinopathy screening model for rural and urban diabetics in developing countries. British Journal of Ophthalmology 91(11):1425−1429

doi: 10.1136/bjo.2007.120659
[15]

Gong D, Fang L, Cai Y, Chong I, Guo J, et al. 2023. Development and evaluation of a risk prediction model for diabetes mellitus type 2 patients with vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy. Frontiers in Endocrinology 14:1244601

doi: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1244601
[16]

Deng X, Li Z, Zeng P, Wang J, Liang J, et al. 2021. A diagnostic model for screening diabetic retinopathy using the hand-held electroretinogram device RETeval. Frontiers in Endocrinology 12:632457

doi: 10.3389/fendo.2021.632457
[17]

Bearse MA, Adams AJ, Han Y, Schneck ME, Ng J, et al. 2006. A multifocal electroretinogram model predicting the development of diabetic retinopathy. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 25(5):425−448

doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2006.07.001
[18]

Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, et al. 2021. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. International Journal of Surgery 88:105906

doi: 10.1016/j.ijsu.2021.105906
[19]

Rostom A, Dubé C, Cranney A, Saloojee N, Sy R, et al. 2004. Celiac disease: summary. AHRQ evidence report summaries No. 104, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), Rockville, MD, USA www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK35156/

[20]

American Diabetes Association. 2016. Classification and diagnosis of diabetes. Diabetes Care 39:S13−S22

doi: 10.2337/dc16-s005
[21]

Levey AS, Cattran D, Friedman A, Miller WG, Sedor J, et al. 2009. Proteinuria as a surrogate outcome in CKD: report of a scientific workshop sponsored by the national kidney foundation and the US food and drug administration. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 54(2):205−226

doi: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2009.04.029
[22]

Levey AS, Stevens LA, Schmid CH, Zhang YL, Castro AF 3rd, et al. 2009. A new equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate. Annals of Internal Medicine 150(9):604−612

doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-150-9-200905050-00006
[23]

Cheung N, Mitchell P, Wong TY. 2010. Diabetic retinopathy. The Lancet 376(9735):124−136

doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)62124-3
[24]

Hosmer DW Jr, Lemeshow S, Sturdivant RX. 2013. Applied Logistic Regression. Hoboken, New Jersey, USA: John Wiley & Sons. doi: 10.1002/9781118548387

[25]

Hu Y, Chan Z, Li C, Shi Y, She X, et al. 2021. Higher serum uric acid levels are associated with an increased risk of vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy in type 2 diabetes patients. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 62(4):23

doi: 10.1167/iovs.62.4.23
[26]

Liu Y, Yang J, Tao L, Lv H, Jiang X, et al. 2017. Risk factors of diabetic retinopathy and sight-threatening diabetic retinopathy: a cross-sectional study of 13473 patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in mainland China. BMJ Open 7(9):e016280

doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2017-016280
[27]

Nakamura M, Barber AJ, Antonetti DA, LaNoue KF, Robinson KA, et al. 2001. Excessive hexosamines block the neuroprotective effect of insulin and induce apoptosis in retinal neurons. Journal of Biological Chemistry 276(47):43748−43755

doi: 10.1074/jbc.M108594200
[28]

Knudsen LL, Lervang HH, Lundbye-Christensen S, Gorst-Rasmussen A. 2006. The north Jutland County diabetic retinopathy study: population characteristics. British Journal of Ophthalmology 90(11):1404−1409

doi: 10.1136/bjo.2006.093393
[29]

Zhang X, Saaddine JB, Chou CF, Cotch MF, Cheng YJ, et al. 2010. Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in the United States, 2005−2008. Jama 304(6):649

doi: 10.1001/jama.2010.1111
[30]

Chew EY, Ambrosius WT, Davis MD, Danis RP, Gangaputra S, et al. 2010. Effects of medical therapies on retinopathy progression in type 2 diabetes. New England Journal of Medicine 363(3):233−244

doi: 10.1056/nejmoa1001288
[31]

Hu Y, Zhou C, Shi Y, She X, Zhao S, et al. 2021. A higher serum calcium level is an independent risk factor for vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy in patients with type 2 diabetes: cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. Endocrine Practice 27(8):826−833

doi: 10.1016/j.eprac.2021.05.003
[32]

Li YY, Yang XF, Gu H, Liu XP, Snellingen T, et al. 2018. The Beijing Desheng Diabetic Eye Study: rationale, design, methodology and baseline data. International Journal of Ophthalmology 11(1):108−116

doi: 10.18240/ijo.2018.01.19
[33]

Wu G, Hu Y, Zhu Q, Liang A, Du Z, et al. 2024. Development and validation of a simple and practical model for early detection of diabetic macular edema in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus using easily accessible systemic variables. Journal of Translational Medicine 22(1):523

doi: 10.1186/s12967-024-05328-y
[34]

Pawlak K, Mysliwiec M, Pawlak D. 2008. Oxidative stress, phosphate and creatinine levels are independently associated with vascular endothelial growth factor levels in patients with chronic renal failure. Cytokine 43(1):98−101

doi: 10.1016/j.cyto.2008.03.011
[35]

Ziyadeh F, Wolf G. 2008. Pathogenesis of the podocytopathy and proteinuria in diabetic glomerulopathy. Current Diabetes Reviews 4(1):39−45

doi: 10.2174/157339908783502370
[36]

Daruich A, Matet A, Moulin A, Kowalczuk L, Nicolas M, et al. 2018. Mechanisms of macular edema: beyond the surface. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 63:20−68

doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2017.10.006
[37]

Nithyanandam S, Ajoy Mohan VK, Idiculla J. 2011. Microalbuminuria and low hemoglobin as risk factors for the occurrence and increasing severity of diabetic retinopathy. Indian Journal of Ophthalmology 59(3):207

doi: 10.4103/0301-4738.81029
[38]

Noma H, Yasuda K, Shimura M. 2021. Involvement of cytokines in the pathogenesis of diabetic macular edema. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22(7):3427

doi: 10.3390/ijms22073427
[39]

Ma R, Zheng C, Niu Y, et al. 2026. Changes of retinal microvascular parameters in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus with or without diabetic kidney disease. Frontiers in Endocrinology 17:1727260

doi: 10.3389/fendo.2026.1727260
[40]

Zheng C, Cao D, Ma R, Hao X, Jin L, et al. 2026. Current status of multi-target therapeutics for diabetic macular oedema: mechanisms and outcomes from clinical trials. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism 28(3):1649−1660

doi: 10.1111/dom.70405
[41]

Davis MD, Fisher MR, Gangnon RE, Barton F, Aiello LM, et al. 1998. Risk factors for high-risk proliferative diabetic retinopathy and severe visual loss: Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Report #18. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 39:233−252

[42]

Traveset A, Rubinat E, Ortega E, Alcubierre N, Vazquez B, et al. 2016. Lower hemoglobin concentration is associated with retinal ischemia and the severity of diabetic retinopathy in type 2 diabetes. Journal of Diabetes Research 2016:3674946

doi: 10.1155/2016/3674946