[1]

Sun G, Tiwari KR, Hao L, Amatya D, Liu N, et al. 2024. Climate change and forest hydrology in future forests. In Future Forests: Ecology, Management and Climate Change, ed. McNulty SG. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 95−124 doi: 10.1016/b978-0-323-90430-8.00003-4

[2]

Cao Y, Zhong D, Shang R, Ke Q, Zhang M, et al. 2025. Afforestation as a mitigation strategy: countering climate-induced risk of forest carbon sink in China. Carbon Balance and Management 20:18

doi: 10.1186/s13021-025-00308-1
[3]

Zhang H, Lu Y, Tian P, Yan Y, Wang R, et al. 2025. Nonlinear responses of dryland vegetation GPP to climate and human drivers along aridity gradients in China and Mongolia. Journal of Environmental Management 395:127754

doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.127754
[4]

He L, Guo J, Jiang Q, Zhang Z, Yu S. 2022. How did the Chinese Loess Plateau turn green from 2001 to 2020? An explanation using satellite data. Catena 214:106246

doi: 10.1016/j.catena.2022.106246
[5]

An Q, Liu L, Staal A, Yang K, Cheng Y, et al. 2025. Land cover changes redistribute China's water resources through atmospheric moisture recycling. Earth's Future 13:e2024EF005565

doi: 10.1029/2024EF005565
[6]

Bai Y, Li Z, Dai J, Seki K, Zhao Y, et al. 2024. Effects of water table depth variations on canopy transpiration from Mongolian pine plantations in arid ecosystems. Journal of Hydrology 644:132106

doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2024.132106
[7]

Zhang X, Xu D, Wang Z, Zhang Y. 2021. Balance of water supply and consumption during ecological restoration in arid regions of Inner Mongolia, China. Journal of Arid Environments 186:104406

doi: 10.1016/j.jaridenv.2020.104406
[8]

Duan K, Caldwell PV, Sun G, McNulty SG, Qin Y, et al. 2022. Climate change challenges efficiency of inter-basin water transfers in alleviating water stress. Environmental Research Letters 17:044050

doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/ac5e68
[9]

Wang W, Chen Y, Wang W, Chen Y, Hou Y. 2023. Groundwater level dynamic impacted by land-cover change in the desert regions of Tarim Basin, central Asia. Water 15:3601

doi: 10.3390/w15203601
[10]

Wang Z, Peng D, Xu D, Zhang X, Zhang Y. 2020. Assessing the water footprint of afforestation in Inner Mongolia, China. Journal of Arid Environments 182:104257

doi: 10.1016/j.jaridenv.2020.104257
[11]

Cheng Y, Xu G, Wang X, Li P, Dang X, et al. 2023. Contribution of soil aggregate particle size to organic carbon and the effect of land use on its distribution in a typical small watershed on Loess Plateau, China. Ecological Indicators 155:110988

doi: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2023.110988
[12]

Chen Y, Zha T, Zhang H, Zhao L, Wang A, et al. 2025. Water supply conditions determine typical plantation water use strategies in Northern China. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 59:102420

doi: 10.1016/j.ejrh.2025.102420
[13]

Teng Y, Zhan J, Su M, Wu Y, Zhang Y, et al. 2022. Identifying prioritized afforestation types in ecologically vulnerable zones of Northern China considering reducing water consumption and increasing carbon sequestration. Ecological Indicators 145:109734

doi: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.109734
[14]

Liu J, Chen Y, Liu X, Lu Y, Zheng C, et al. 2025. Soil hydrological processes and drought response of typical vegetation in arid regions under long-term climate patterns. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 62:102919

doi: 10.1016/j.ejrh.2025.102919
[15]

Zhang Q, Fan J, Zhao X. 2025. Effect of shrubland-to-grassland conversion on soil water storage and infiltration capacity in Loess Plateau region of China. Catena 249:108720

doi: 10.1016/j.catena.2025.108720
[16]

Yi Z, Wang M, Zhao C. 2022. Desert soilization: the concept and practice of making deserts bloom. The Innovation 3(1):100200

doi: 10.1016/j.xinn.2021.100200
[17]

Qu JJ, Wang T, Niu QH, Liu BL, Tan LH, et al. 2024. Study on weaving technology and sand control effect of brush straw checkerboard barriers. Scientia Sinica Technologica 54(8):1601−1610

doi: 10.1360/SST-2023-0282
[18]

Hong L, Wang Q, Zhang J, Chen X, Liu Y, et al. 2024. Advances in the beneficial endophytic fungi for the growth and health of woody plants. Forestry Research 4:e028

doi: 10.48130/forres-0024-0025
[19]

Liu J, Guo Y, Yang J, Zhu N, Dai W, et al. 2024. Forest point cloud registration: a review. Forestry Research 4:e018

doi: 10.48130/forres-0024-0015
[20]

Dogra R, Bhardwaj DR, Sharma P, Pooja, Thakur S, et al. 2025. Agroforestry water footprint: pathways to environmentally conscious farming. In Water Footprints: Achieving Sustainable Development Goals, eds. Kumar A, Hui D, Lin J, Thakur TK. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 183−200 doi: 10.1016/B978-0-443-30054-7.00004-5

[21]

Yang Y, Jing L, Li Q, Liang C, Dong Q, et al. 2023. Big-sized trees and higher species diversity improve water holding capacities of forests in northeast China. Science of The Total Environment 880:163263

doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163263
[22]

Cheng Y, Zhan H, Yang W, Feng W, Lu Q, et al. 2023. Redistribution process of precipitation in ecological restoration activity of Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica in Mu Us Sandy Land, China. International Soil and Water Conservation Research 11(3):572−585

doi: 10.1016/j.iswcr.2022.03.008
[23]

Cui Z, Huang Z, Liu Y, López-Vicente M, Wu GL. 2022. Natural compensation mechanism of soil water infiltration through decayed roots in semi-arid vegetation species. Science of The Total Environment 819:151985

doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151985
[24]

Mongil-Manso J, Navarro-Hevia J, San Martín R. 2022. Impact of land use change and afforestation on soil properties in a Mediterranean mountain area of central Spain. Land 11(7):1043

doi: 10.3390/land11071043
[25]

He L, Cheng Y, Yang W, Guo J, Xin Z, et al. 2025. Deep percolation and soil water dynamics under different sand-fixing vegetation types in two different precipitation regions in semiarid sandy land, Northern China. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 364:110455

doi: 10.1016/j.agrformet.2025.110455
[26]

Hong M, Ko Y, Lee S, Song M, Lee WK. 2025. Can forest management improve water retention conservation under climate change? A case study of the Republic of Korea. Forests 16(5):862

doi: 10.3390/f16050862
[27]

Molenaar RE, Kleidorfer M, Kohl B, Teuling AJ, Achleitner S. 2024. Does afforestation increase soil water buffering? A demonstrator study on soil moisture variability in the Alpine Geroldsbach catchment, Austria. Journal of Hydrology 643:131984

doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2024.131984
[28]

Feng T, Zheng H, Wei W, Wang P, Bi H, et al. 2025. Natural forests accelerate soil hydrological processes and enhance water-holding capacities compared to planted forests after long-term restoration. Water Resources Research 61(9):e2025WR040857

doi: 10.1029/2025WR040857
[29]

van Meerveld I, Seibert J. 2025. Reforestation effects on low flows: Review of public perceptions and scientific evidence. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water 12(1):e1760

doi: 10.1002/wat2.1760
[30]

Wu GL, Cui Z, Huang Z. 2021. Contribution of root decay process on soil infiltration capacity and soil water replenishment of planted forestland in semi-arid regions. Geoderma 404:115289

doi: 10.1016/j.geoderma.2021.115289
[31]

Zhao H, Wang X, Wu C. 2023. Ecosystem water use efficiency was enhanced by the implementation of forest conservation and restoration programs in China. Journal of Hydrology 617:128979

doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.128979
[32]

Zheng X, Zhu J, Wang G, Yan Q, Sun T, et al. 2025. Assessing the ecological effects of the world's largest forestry eco-engineering: Three-North Protective Forest Program within the initially scheduled range from 1978 to 2022. Science China Life Sciences 68(2):314−327

doi: 10.1007/s11427-024-2705-4
[33]

Zhang Z, Jia X, Zhu P, Huang M, Ren L, et al. 2024. Estimating the optimal vegetation coverage for the dominant tree and shrub species over China's northwest drylands. Science China Earth Sciences 67:1500−1517

doi: 10.1007/s11430-023-1287-x
[34]

Nan Y, Huo J, Han G, Hu R, Zhao Y, et al. 2025. Groundwater altered water balance and plant water use efficiency in desert ecosystems. Water Resources Research 61:e2025WR040545

doi: 10.1029/2025WR040545
[35]

Kang B, Ren Y, Shi Y, Zhu X, Huang J, et al. 2025. Quantifying moisture source contributions to diverse precipitation events over the Tibetan Plateau. Water 17(24):3587

doi: 10.3390/w17243587
[36]

Cai Z, Li R, Wang C, Mao Q, Tian L. 2025. Moisture sources and dynamics over the Southeast Tibetan Plateau reflected in dual water vapor isotopes. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 25:11633−11650

doi: 10.5194/acp-25-11633-2025
[37]

Li Y, Xu R, Yang K, Liu Y, Wang S, et al. 2023. Contribution of Tibetan Plateau ecosystems to local and remote precipitation through moisture recycling. Global Change Biology 29(3):702−718

doi: 10.1111/gcb.16495
[38]

Gui J, Li Z, Feng Q, Zhang B, Xue J, et al. 2022. Water resources significance of moisture recycling in the transition zone between Tibetan Plateau and arid region by stable isotope tracing. Journal of Hydrology 605:127350

doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.127350
[39]

Yao T, Bolch T, Chen D, Gao J, Immerzeel W, et al. 2022. The imbalance of the Asian water tower. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment 3(10):618−632

doi: 10.1038/s43017-022-00299-4
[40]

Immerzeel WW, Lutz AF, Andrade M, Bahl A, Biemans H, et al. 2020. Importance and vulnerability of the world's water towers. Nature 577:364−369

doi: 10.1038/s41586-019-1822-y
[41]

Cheng H, Wang T, Yang D, Liao Z, Shi R. 2026. Projected declining cryospheric meltwater and its impact on river runoff under climate change on the interior Tibetan Plateau. Water Resources Research 62:e2025WR041472

doi: 10.1029/2025WR041472
[42]

Guo X, Wang L, Tian L, Zhang L, Zhao W. 2025. Quantitative identification of moisture sources over the Tibetan Plateau: spatial distributions and temporal variabilities. Journal of Climate 38:263−276

doi: 10.1175/JCLI-D-24-0093.1
[43]

Hao A, Xue X, You Q, Gou C. 2023. Review on precipitation change over the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau in recent 60 years. Journal of Desert Research 43(2):43−52 (in Chinese)

[44]

Liu H, Wang L, Chen D, Yao T, Bashir A, et al. 2025. Importance of melting water in the Third Pole transboundary fluvial floods. Science Bulletin 70(21):3504−3508

doi: 10.1016/j.scib.2025.06.038
[45]

Chen Y, Li Z, Xu J, Shen Y, Xing X, et al. 2023. Changes and protection suggestions in water resources and ecological environment in arid region of Northwest China. Bulletin of Chinese Academy of Sciences 38(3):385−393 (in Chinese)

doi: 10.16418/j.issn.1000-3045.20230120005
[46]

Gou J, Miao C, Ni J, Sorooshian S, Duan Q, et al. 2025. Warming climate and water withdrawals threaten river flow connectivity in China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 122:e2421046122

doi: 10.1073/pnas.2421046122
[47]

Huang J, Huang T, Wang J, Yang Z. 2025. Estimation of groundwater evapotranspiration based on diurnal groundwater-level fluctuations. Northwestern Geology 58(6):33−42 (in Chinese)

doi: 10.12401/j.nwg.2025090
[48]

Zhao S, Huang Y, Liu Z, Liu T, Tang X. 2024. Estimation of actual evapotranspiration and water stress in typical irrigation areas in Xinjiang, northwest China. Remote Sensing 16(14):2676

doi: 10.3390/rs16142676
[49]

Yang L, Feng Q, Zhu M, Wang L, Alizadeh MR, et al. 2022. Variation in actual evapotranspiration and its ties to climate change and vegetation dynamics in northwest China. Journal of Hydrology 607:127533

doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.127533
[50]

Shao Y, Dong Z, Meng J, Wu S, Li Y, et al. 2023. Analysis of runoff variation and future trends in a changing environment: case study for Shiyanghe River Basin, northwest China. Sustainability 15:2173

doi: 10.3390/su15032173
[51]

Wang P, Wei Y, Zhong F, Song X, Wang B, et al. 2022. Evaluation of agricultural water resources carrying capacity and its influencing factors: a case study of townships in the arid region of northwest China. Agriculture 12:700

doi: 10.3390/agriculture12050700
[52]

Guo Y, Shen Y. 2016. Agricultural water supply-demand changes under projected future climate change in the arid region of northwestern China. Journal of Hydrology 540:257−273

doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.06.033
[53]

Ma W, Dai X, Wei Y, Yang J, Jin Q. 2026. Climate change dominates blue-green water shifts in China's arid northwest: evidence from the Heihe River Basin. Environmental Earth Sciences 85:212

doi: 10.1007/s12665-026-12940-2
[54]

Wang L, Li X, Lutz A, Nepal S, Chen D, et al. 2025. Acceleration of diverging runoff trends on the Third Pole. Communications Earth & Environment 6:907

doi: 10.1038/s43247-025-02854-5
[55]

Wang J, Wu Z. 2024. Three types of East Asian summer rainfall associated with monsoon circulation and tropical cyclone activities: unique features and major influential factors. Climate Dynamics 62:4099−4116

doi: 10.1007/s00382-024-07120-6
[56]

Long D, Xu Y, Cui Y, Cui Y, Butler JJ Jr, et al. 2025. Unprecedented large-scale aquifer recovery through human intervention. Nature Communications 16:7296

doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-62719-5
[57]

Liu J, Li S, Ouyang Z, Tam C, Chen X. 2008. Ecological and socioeconomic effects of China's policies for ecosystem services. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105:9477−9482

doi: 10.1073/pnas.0706436105
[58]

State Forestry Administration of China. 2019. The Three-North Shelterbelt Program: Construction and Achievements (1978–2018). Beijing: China Forestry Publishing House

[59]

Uchida E, Xu J, Rozelle S. 2005. Grain for green: cost-effectiveness and sustainability of China's conservation set-aside program. Land Economics 81(2):247−264

doi: 10.3368/le.81.2.247
[60]

Yin R, Yin G, Li L. 2010. Assessing China's ecological restoration programs: what's been done and what remains to be done? Environmental Management 45(3):442−453

doi: 10.1007/s00267-009-9387-4
[61]

Ma H, Wang Y, Guo E, Yin S, Kang Y, et al. 2025. Unstable changes in ecological quality of the four major sandy lands in northern China based on Google Earth Engine. Ecological Indicators 171:113195

doi: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2025.113195
[62]

Feng Q, Ma H, Jiang X, Wang X, Cao S. 2015. What has caused desertification in China? Scientific Reports 5:15998

doi: 10.1038/srep15998
[63]

Yan Z, Du M, Sun W, Jiao F, Mu X. 2026. Dynamic changes of expansion and shrinkage of the four major sandy lands of China from 1986 to 2023. Research of Soil and Water Conservation 33(1):205−215 (in Chinese)

doi: 10.13869/j.cnki.rswc.2026.01.039
[64]

Zeng Y, Yang X, Fang N, Shi Z. 2020. Large-scale afforestation significantly increases permanent surface water in China's vegetation restoration regions. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 290:108001

doi: 10.1016/j.agrformet.2020.108001
[65]

Wang Q, Liu H, Liang B, Shi L, Wu L, et al. 2024. Will large-scale forestation lead to a soil water deficit crisis in China's drylands? Science Bulletin 69(10):1506−1514

doi: 10.1016/j.scib.2024.03.005
[66]

Xue B, A Y, Wang G, Helman D, Sun G, et al. 2022. Divergent hydrological responses to forest expansion in dry and wet basins of China: implications for future afforestation planning. Water Resources Research 58:e2021WR031856

doi: 10.1029/2021WR031856
[67]

Qin J, Ding YJ, Zhao QD, Wang SP, Chang YP. 2020. Assessments on surface water resources and their vulnerability and adaptability in China. Advances in Climate Change Research 11(4):381−391

doi: 10.1016/j.accre.2020.11.002
[68]

Shi X, Wang S, Zhao S, Sun B, Yu H, et al. 2025. Evaluating the effects of ecological water replenishment on lake water exchange in semi-arid regions: insights from an 11-year modeling study. Journal of Environmental Management 391:126491

doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.126491
[69]

Chen C, Park T, Wang X, Piao S, Xu B, et al. 2019. China and India lead in greening of the world through land-use management. Nature Sustainability 2:122−129

doi: 10.1038/s41893-019-0220-7
[70]

Piao S, Wang X, Park T, Chen C, Lian X, et al. 2020. Characteristics, drivers and feedbacks of global greening. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment 1:14−27

doi: 10.1038/s43017-019-0001-x
[71]

Cui J, Lian X, Huntingford C, Gimeno L, Wang T, et al. 2022. Global water availability boosted by vegetation-driven changes in atmospheric moisture transport. Nature Geoscience 15:982−988

doi: 10.1038/s41561-022-01061-7
[72]

Tian L, Zhang B, Chen S, Wang X, Ma X, et al. 2022. Large-scale afforestation enhances precipitation by intensifying the atmospheric water cycle over the Chinese Loess Plateau. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 127:e2022JD036738

doi: 10.1029/2022JD036738
[73]

Liu M, Zhou X, Huang G, Li Y. 2024. The increasing water stress projected for China could shift the agriculture and manufacturing industry geographically. Communications Earth & Environment 5:396

doi: 10.1038/s43247-024-01560-y
[74]

Feng L, Zhou T. 2012. Water vapor transport for summer precipitation over the Tibetan Plateau: multidata set analysis. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 117(D20114):2011JD017012

doi: 10.1029/2011JD017012
[75]

Ma Y, Lu M, Chen H, Pan M, Hong Y. 2018. Atmospheric moisture transport versus precipitation across the Tibetan Plateau: a mini-review and current challenges. Atmospheric Research 209:50−58

doi: 10.1016/j.atmosres.2018.03.015
[76]

Wang Y, Xie X, Shi J, Zhu B, Jiang F, et al. 2022. Accelerated hydrological cycle on the Tibetan Plateau evidenced by ensemble modeling of long-term water budgets. Journal of Hydrology 615:128710

doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.128710
[77]

Xu X, Zhao T, Lu C, Guo Y, Chen B, et al. 2014. An important mechanism sustaining the atmospheric 'water tower' over the Tibetan Plateau. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 14:11287−11295

doi: 10.5194/acp-14-11287-2014
[78]

Dong X, Liu Y, Yan X, Dong W. 2026. Advanced onset of South Asian summer monsoon increases pre-monsoon precipitation over Tibetan Plateau. Atmospheric Research 327:108385

doi: 10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108385
[79]

Jackson RB, Jobbágy EG, Avissar R, Roy SB, Barrett DJ, et al. 2005. Trading water for carbon with biological carbon sequestration. Science 310:1944−1947

doi: 10.1126/science.1119282
[80]

Farley KA, Jobbágy EG, Jackson RB. 2005. Effects of afforestation on water yield: a global synthesis with implications for policy. Global Change Biology 11:1565−1576

doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2005.01011.x
[81]

Li S, Xu M, Sun B. 2014. Long-term hydrological response to reforestation in a large watershed in southeastern China. Hydrological Processes 28(22):5573−5582

doi: 10.1002/hyp.10018
[82]

Song W, Zang Q, Yu Y, Zhou G, Xiao C. 2025. Plant rewilding: a new practical approach in plant-environment interaction research. Plant, Cell & Environment 48:6231−6234

doi: 10.1111/pce.15606