Figures (5)  Tables (3)

    • Figure 1. 

      Original geographic distribution and principal component analysis (PCA) of climatic variables of C. japonica Prv. (a) Locations of the five Prv used in this study and the two CGs (CG, star). Colors represent genetic structure, modified from Uchiyama et al.[33]. (b) PCA of climatic variables in the Prv and CG. Prv and CG scores are represented by large circles and stars in the same colors as used in (a). Climatic variables are represented by small black circles. The climatic variables are annual mean temperature (bio1), mean diurnal range (bio2), isothermality (bio3), temperature seasonality (bio4), maximum temperature of the warmest month (bio5), minimum temperature of the coldest month (bio6), temperature annual range (bio7), mean temperature of the wettest quarter (bio8), mean temperature of the driest quarter (bio9), mean temperature of the warmest quarter (bio10), mean temperature of the coldest quarter (bio11), annual precipitation (bio12), precipitation of the wettest month (bio13), precipitation of the driest month (bio14), precipitation seasonality (bio15), precipitation of the wettest quarter (bio16), precipitation of the driest quarter (bio17), precipitation of the warmest quarter (bio18), and precipitation of the coldest quarter (bio19). Prv and CG abbreviations are listed in Table 1.

    • Figure 2. 

      Total chlorophyll (Chl = Chla + Chlb) and total carotenoid (Car) concentrations in needles of C. japonica from five Prv grown in two CGs located in Nrk and Ksm. Values represent means from three to five trees. Error bars indicate (a), (c) total Chl and (b), (d) total Car. Car of path A (PtA) is α-carotene + lutein, and Car of path B (PtB) is β-carotene + xanthophyll cycle (V + A + Z) + Rho + Neo. Prv abbreviations are listed in Table 1. Significant effects of Prv, CG, and their interaction are denoted as m p < 0.10, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001, ns not significant.

    • Figure 3. 

      VAZ and Rho concentrations in needles of C. japonica from five Prv grown in two CG located in Nrk and Ksm. Values represent means ± SE from three to five trees, shown on a (a), (c), (e) projected area basis, and a (b), (d), (f) chlorophyll basis. Prv abbreviations are listed in Table 1. Significant effects of Prv, CG, and their interaction are denoted as m p < 0.10, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001, ns not significant.

    • Figure 4. 

      Dark-adapted photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (Fv/Fm) measured in situ 2 h after sunset on clear days in (a) summer and (b) winter in needles of C. japonica from five Prv grown in two CGs located in Nrk and Ksm. Values represent means ± SE from three to five trees. Prv abbreviations are listed in Table 1. Significant effects of Prv and CG are indicated as * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001, ns not significant.

    • Figure 5. 

      Principal component ordination of pigment components in needles of C. japonica from five Prv grown in two CG located in Nrk and Ksm in (a) summer and (b) winter. Prv abbreviations are listed in Table 1. Chla: chlorophyll a, Chlb: chlorophyll b, VAZ: xanthophyll cycle, Rho: rhodoxanthin, Neo: neoxanthin, Lut: lutein, α-Car: α-carotene, β-Car: β-carotene.

    • Prv
      (abbreviation)      		 Latitude Longitude Altitude
      (m)      		 AMT
      (°C)      		 AP
      (mm)      		 MTCM
      (°C)      		 MTWQ
      (°C)      		 TAR
      (°C)      		 PWM
      (mm)      		 PCQ
      (mm)
      Ajigasawa, Aomori (AJG) 40°41' 140°12' 280 11.1 1,709.6 −9.0 22.1 41.6 204.7 465.9
      Azouji, Shimane (AZJ) 34°29' 131°59' 1,041 9.4 2,539.1 −10.8 19.9 40.4 301.6 432.3
      Kawazu, Shizuoka (KWZ) 34°50' 139°00' 620 14.7 3,645.9 −2.9 23.3 33.5 441.4 455.2
      Shingu, Wakayama (SNG) 33°53' 135°43' 560 13.9 3,105.8 −6.2 24.1 39.8 448.2 317.5
      Yakushima, Kagoshima (YKU) 30°19' 130°34' 1,025 13.8 4,722.3 −1.2 21.3 28.3 835.0 699.9
      Common gardens (CG)
      Kumamoto trial site (Ksm) 32°42' 130°45' 30 17.9 1,908.8 −2.5 27.7 38.9 436.1 191.3
      Miyagi trial site (Nrk) 38°46' 140°45' 290 11.4 1,684.0 −9.3 22.2 42.6 181.6 355.2
      Averaged values between 1981 and 2000 from www.worldclim.org/data/bioclim.html#google_vignette. AMT: annual mean temperature (bio1), AP: annual precipitation (bio12), MTCM: minimum temperature of coldest month (bio6), TAR: temperature annual range (bio7), MTWQ: mean temperature of warmest quarter (bio10), PWM: precipitation of wettest month (bio13), PCQ: precipitation of coldest quarter (bio19).

      Table 1. 

      General data on Prv and CGs used in this study.

    • Season Prv CG α-carotene Lutein Path A β-carotene Neo Path B Chla Chlb
      Summer AJG Ksm 25.6 ± 2.4 130.9 ± 8.9 155.83 ± 10.95 348.7 ± 21.7 25.7 ± 2.3 391.25 ± 25.97 588.3 ± 55.3 174.1 ± 13.0
      Nrk 43.7 ± 2.5 135.3 ± 6.4 178.89 ± 8.78 373.7 ± 15.7 34.4 ± 2.2 421.67 ± 18.93 700.0 ± 53.3 224.3 ± 12.1
      AZJ Ksm 20.4 ± 1.9 97.8 ± 6.8 118.00 ± 8.57 286.7 ± 19.3 18.9 ± 1.4 318.00 ± 21.47 380.6 ± 38.4 131.8 ± 10.8
      Nrk 31.0 ± 1.7 100.9 ± 3.1 131.67 ± 4.80 295.4 ± 9.1 25.6 ± 0.9 332.22 ± 11.10 533.7 ± 32.6 165.9 ± 6.2
      KWZ Ksm 22.1 ± 1.9 109.2 ± 4.9 132.22 ± 6.84 302.4 ± 13.8 20.4 ± 1.5 339.44 ± 15.91 449.4 ± 29.4 144.9 ± 8.0
      Nrk 29.9 ± 2.0 90.2 ± 3.5 120.56 ± 5.57 265.9 ± 10.0 23.1 ± 1.3 297.78 ± 11.90 467.9 ± 34.8 157.0 ± 7.7
      SNG Ksm 13.5 ± 1.2 80.1 ± 4.1 93.18 ± 5.11 230.3 ± 10.9 14.0 ± 0.9 256.82 ± 13.17 304.0 ± 19.4 98.6 ± 5.2
      Nrk 29.6 ± 2.5 89.5 ± 3.8 118.33 ± 6.28 251.2 ± 10.2 22.6 ± 1.4 282.78 ± 12.12 491.7 ± 28.4 156.2 ± 9.1
      YKU Ksm 24.6 ± 4.2 119.3 ± 10.2 143.33 ± 14.37 328.8 ± 25.4 21.7 ± 2.9 371.67 ± 31.98 518.2 ± 62.9 156.4 ± 16.5
      Nrk 32.2 ± 3.0 97.4 ± 4.7 129.38 ± 7.82 286.5 ± 10.7 23.3 ± 1.5 318.75 ± 12.68 522.0 ± 30.6 164.2 ± 9.9
      Statistics (F value)
      Prv 2.94* 3.71** 3.76* 4.11* 2.84m 3.64* 2.15ns 2.93*
      CG 69.48*** 0.20ns 4.17* 0.49ns 35.23*** 0.61n 18.09*** 36.49***
      Prv × CG 1.23ns 3.18* 2.20m 2.47* 1.51ns 2.46* 2.87* 2.07m
      Winter AJG Ksm 0.7 ± 0.4 131.1 ± 6.9 132.27 ± 7.05 312.6 ± 26.4 16.6 ± 2.4 523.64 ± 29.27 177.8 ± 17.6 77.5 ± 5.5
      Nrk 4.2 ± 0.7 185.1 ± 9.0 189.44 ± 9.98 397.1 ± 42.2 28.5 ± 2.7 608.89 ± 44.01 326.1 ± 48.1 156.3 ± 16.2
      AZJ Ksm 0.0 ± 0.0 104.1 ± 5.0 103.50 ± 4.99 254.1 ± 18.4 10.1 ± 0.9 467.00 ± 24.89 121.9 ± 14.1 56.0 ± 5.8
      Nrk 1.9 ± 0.5 136.2 ± 6.1 137.65 ± 6.33 292.5 ± 23.7 23.5 ± 1.8 509.41 ± 33.34 227.4 ± 20.7 116.4 ± 10.6
      KWZ Ksm 0.0 ± 0.0 122.9 ± 9.2 124.71 ± 9.32 305.4 ± 31.0 14.5 ± 1.7 501.76 ± 43.46 207.1 ± 31.5 86.6 ± 10.2
      Nrk 3.2 ± 0.8 153.8 ± 7.4 156.67 ± 8.12 363.9 ± 25.7 25.7 ± 2.0 583.33 ± 25.46 268.9 ± 30.5 132.6 ± 13.4
      SNG Ksm 0.0 ± 0.0 83.8 ± 4.6 83.18 ± 4.62 191.1 ± 13.0 9.8 ± 0.9 347.73 ± 15.62 111.4 ± 10.7 44.5 ± 4.4
      Nrk 1.9 ± 0.5 128.9 ± 5.6 130.56 ± 5.91 277.8 ± 17.1 21.2 ± 1.7 442.22 ± 18.09 196.7 ± 19.0 111.8 ± 9.1
      YKU Ksm 0.0 ± 0.0 108.3 ± 11.1 108.33 ± 11.34 261.8 ± 28.7 11.9 ± 1.7 425.00 ± 49.58 180.5 ± 18.0 77.3 ± 8.8
      Nrk 0.6 ± 0.4 114.3 ± 5.9 114.67 ± 6.46 251.5 ± 20.0 17.3 ± 1.1 382.67 ± 23.12 196.5 ± 21.8 95.5 ± 7.5
      Statistics (F value)
      Prv 3.24* 7.42*** 7.56*** 4.62** 3.05* 4.53* 4.71** 3.87*
      CG 57.04*** 63.71*** 62.90*** 12.08*** 87.07*** 7.8** 20.59*** 80.16***
      Prv × CG 3.32* 3.31* 3.33* 1.2ns 1.07ns 1.03n 1.25ns 2.44*
      Values represent means ± SE from three to five trees. Carotenoid of path A is α-carotene + lutein, and path B is the sum of β-carotene, Neo, xanthophyll cycle (VAZ), and Rho. Significant effects of Prv, CG, and their interaction are indicated as m p < 0.10, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001, ns not significant.

      Table 2. 

      Pigment concentration (μmol·m−2) in needles of C. japonica originating from five Prv growing in two CGs and statistical summary.

    • Season Prv CG Ø θ Amax Rd
      μmol·m−2·s−1
      Summer Ajigasawa (AJG) Nrk 0.083 ± 0.010 0.86 ± 0.01 21.10 ± 1.60 2.38 ± 0.09
      Ksm 0.050 ± 0.005 0.68 ± 0.05 20.33 ± 2.10 2.93 ± 0.36
      Azouji (AZJ) Nrk 0.063 ± 0.007 0.82 ± 0.04 20.89 ± 1.65 2.00 ± 0.70
      Ksm 0.060 ± 0.011 0.82 ± 0.05 17.31 ± 1.97 2.23 ± 0.25
      Singu (SNG) Nrk 0.065 ± 0.008 0.82 ± 0.06 16.85 ± 0.59 1.73 ± 0.47
      Ksm 0.042 ± 0.004 0.73 ± 0.04 17.84 ± 0.59 1.97 ± 0.19
      Statistics
      Prv p = 0.308 p = 0.442 p = 0.134 p = 0.156
      CG p = 0.010 p = 0.022 p = 0.391 p = 0.324
      Winter Ajigasawa (AJG) Nrk 0.019 ± 0.005 0.76 ± 0.12 9.33 ± 2.35 2.73 ± 0.33
      Ksm 0.022 ± 0.006 0.45 ± 0.17 11.13 ± 2.47 3.97 ± 0.79
      Azouji (AZJ) Nrk 0.023 ± 0.005 0.57 ± 0.16 10.84 ± 0.84 3.13 ± 0.57
      Ksm 0.024 ± 0.000 0.81 ± 0.00 12.14 ± 1.27 4.32 ± 0.09
      Singu (SNG) Nrk 0.017 ± 0.003 0.30 ± 0.12 6.93 ± 1.17 3.06 ± 0.30
      Ksm 0.027 ± 0.009 0.03 ± 0.01 9.92 ± 2.01 3.65 ± 0.49
      Statistics
      Prv p = 0.813 p = 0.212 p = 0.268 p = 0.677
      CG p = 0.267 p = 0.670 p = 0.192 p = 0.025
      Values shown are means ± SE from three trees of each CG. Ø: apparent quantum yield of CO2 fixation, θ: the convexity of the light-response curve, Amax: the light-saturated photosynthetic rate, Rd: dark respiration rate. Significant values are highlighted in bold.

      Table 3. 

      Photosynthetic parameters in needles of C. japonica originated from three Prv growing in two CG and two-way ANOVA results.