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Figure 1.
A detailed chart summarizing the mycoremediation techniques (adapted from Geris et al.[2]).
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Figure 2.
Two CF developing on cow dung. (a) Young apothecia of Ascobolus scatigenus. (b) Young basidiocarps of Parasola misera. Photograph provided by Dr. Francisco Calaça.
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Figure 3.
Life cycle of CF. Cow vector[94].
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Figure 4.
A chronological template illustrating the sequential emergence of fruiting bodies of various coprophilous fungal genera over 8 weeks. (a) Mucor sp.[95], (b) Pilobolus roridus[96], (c) Piptocephalis sp.[97], (d) Podospra sp.*, (e) Ascobolus scatigenus*, (f) Chaetomium globosum[98], (g) Parasola misera* (h) Sphaerobolus stellatus[99], (i) Cyathus stercoreus[100]. * Photos provided by Dr. Francisco Calaça.
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Figure 5.
A histogram illustrating the number of distinct recalcitrant pollutants degraded by each of the 16 fungal genera reported. Data sources Mucor[47,58,67,76], Pilobolus[87], Phycomyces[58], Saccobolus[60], Chaetomium[73,84], Coniochaeta[63,75], Podospora[65,66], Sordaria[89], Emericellopsis[48], Gymnoascus[81], Aspergillus[68], Coprinus[49,50,52,67,82], Cyathus[78], Panaeolus[53], Stropharia[56,69,90–92], and Sphaerobolus[56].
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Phase* Phylum Class CF genus Ref. Pre first phase 24 h Basidiomycota (yeasts) Tremellomycetes Cryptococcus, Trichosporon [32] Ascomycota (yeasts) Pichiomycetes Candida Dothideomycetes Aureobasidium First phase
(2−3 d)Mucoromycota Chaetocladium, Mucor, Phycomyces, Pilaira, Pilobolus, Utharomyces [16,19,21,23] Kickxellomycota Kickxella Second phase
(3−4 weeks)Ascomycota Pezizomycetes Ascobolus, Cheilymenia, Coprotus, Iodophanus, Lasiobolus, Saccobolus [16,19−23] Leotiomycetes Thelebolus Sordariomycetes Chaetomium, Cercophora, Coniochaeta, Hypocopra, Cladorrhinum, Phomatospora, Podospora, Poronia, Selinia Sordaria, Stilbella, Zygopleurage Eurotiomycetes Aspergillus, Gymnoascus, Hamigera; Paecilomyces, Talaromyces Dothideomycete Delitschia, Trichodelitschia, Sporormiella Orbiliomycetes Arthrobotrys Final phase
(3−8 weeks)Basidiomycota Agaricomycetes Bolbitius, Clitopilus, Conocybe, Coprinellus, Coprinus, Coprinopsis, Cyathus, Deconica, Panaeolus, Psathyrella, Psilocybe, Stropharia, Sphaerobolus [16,26,33,34] * Some fungal fruiting bodies could appear few days earlier or later then the mentioned time. Table 1.
Diversity of key coprophilous fungi and their taxonomic classification by successional phase.
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Fungal genera Pollutants Ref. Mucor mucedo DSM810 TNT [44,47,67,68,76] Mucor circinelloides Heavy metals: Pb (II), Zn (II), Fe (III), Mn (II), and Cu (II) Mucor sp. Thermoplastic Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Pilobolus sp. Parathion methyl [87] Phycomyces sp. Petroleum hydrocarbons or other organic chemicals [58,59] Saccobolus saccoboloides Organic solid wastes [60] Chaetomium globosum ATCC16021 PCL and PVC (Polycaprolactone); Cellulosic materials and dyes [73,84] Coniochaeta hoffmannii Polypropylene [63,75] Coniochaeta sp. Petroleum hydrocarbons Podospora anserine Explosives and xenobiotic pollutants [65,66] Sordaria superba, Herbicides [89] Emericellopsis aciculosa Oxidize Mn [48] Gymnoascus arxii Natural and synthetic textiles dyes [81] Aspergillus niger 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) [68] Coprinus comatus Heavy metals such as Cu, Cd, Ni, Hg, and Pb [49−52,67,82] Organic pollutants: naphthalene, fluoranthene, and endosulfan Coprinus plicatilis The textile dye remazol reactive blue 19 Cyathus bulleri Textile effluent [78,79] Panaeolus papilionaceus Remove Pb2+ ions from aquatic medium. [53] Stropharia rugosoannulata TNT, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), carbamazepine, chlorinated phenols, dibenzo-p-dioxins, furans and other organic matters. [56,69,90−92] Sphaerobolus stellatus Organic matters [56] Table 2.
An overview of the 16 fungal genera and their roles in mycoremediation of recalcitrant pollutants.
Figures
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Tables
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