Figures (5)  Tables (2)

    • Figure 1. 

      Statistics of Catharanthus roseus research publications (1963–2025). Distribution (%) of publications on periwinkle in different subject areas during the period 1963–2025 (search with all fields, query preview = 'Madagascar periwinkle' OR 'Catharanthus roseus' at the Web of Science).

    • Figure 2. 

      Distribution map of Catharanthus roseus based on all the information available to CABI Compendium (doi: 10.1079/cabicompendium.16884). (a) Distribution map of C. roseus across the globe. (b) Distribution map of C. roseus across China. The sample distribution map was generated using the R package 'rnaturalearth' and RStudio (Version 2025.05.1+513).

    • Figure 3. 

      The abundant cultivars of flower color and shape in Madagascar periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus). (a) Different colors of MP cultivars`petals. (b) Different eye zone colors of MP cultivars. (c) Wavy petal of MP cultivars. (d) Double-flowered and tiny-flowered MP cultivars. (The publicly accessible websites for downloading these images are listed in Supplementary Table S1).

    • Figure 4. 

      Current major areas in ornamental Madagascar periwinkle research (I–V). (a) Hyper-branched leafless inflorescence of 'lli' genotype and wild type, and field view of some new ornamental genotypes of periwinkle C. roseus carrying the 'lli' mutation (adapted from Kumar et al.[92]). (b) Different ornamental applications of ornamental periwinkle, such as potted flowers, flower baskets, cutting flowers, flower border, and ground cover. (c) Different colors of ornamental periwinkle cultivars (adapted from Makki et al.[96]). (d) Different eye zone color of ornamental periwinkle cultivars (adapted from Tsai et al.[45]). (e) Double-flowering phenotype of C. roseus cv. 'Taoyuan No. 1 Rose Girl' (adapted from Chen & Yeh and Chen et al. [1,77]). (f) Top view of flowers of the pollen parents, seed parents, and F1 individuals selected for F2 generation wavy flower from segregation analysis (adapted from Huang et al.[79]). (g) Clonal fidelity of in vitro regenerated plantlets of C. roseus revealed by RAPD (TDG-CU-5), ISSR (18[GT], and 65[AG]), and ISSR (GTGTGTGT and AGAGAGAG) markers, respectively (adapted from Das et al.[97]). (h) Morphological characteristics images of 25 accessions of C. roseus. (adapted from Rani et al.[67]). (i) Chromosomal position of the detected MQTL on the C. roseus genome associated with morphological traits and pharmaceutical alkaloids with 95% confidence interval (adapted from Shariatipour et al.[98]). (j) Chromosome-level features of C. roseus (BioProject: PRJNA841429) (adapted from Sun et al.[35]) (k) The progressive improvement of the single-cell multi-omics era in C. roseus (adapted from Li et al. and Burlat et al.[34,99]). (l) Disease symptoms induced in C. roseus plants 2 months after inoculation with Xylella fastidiosa (right) (adapted from Lacava & Azevedo[100]). (m) Differences in CLas symptoms of Citrus sinensis and its agent C. roseus, and their proposed genetic basis (adapted from Xu et al.[33]). (n) Botrytis stem canker on vinca (C. roseus) (adapted from Daughtrey et al.[101]). (o) Performance assessments between disease-resistant C. roseus cv 'Cora® XDR' series against existing commercial varieties (www.syngentaflowers.com/ams/coraxdr).

    • Figure 5. 

      The hypothetical comprehensive breeding scheme for ornamental periwinkle integrating conventional with modern breeding strategies. Icons were created using Excalidraw (https://excalidraw.com), and AI-Doubao (www.doubao.com/chat).

    • Series Supplier Cultivars
      Blockbuster™ Syngenta® Flowers (originally developed by Floranova) 'Blockbuster™ Apricot', 'Blockbuster™ Blue', 'Blockbuster™ Blush', 'Blockbuster™ Burgundy', 'Blockbuster™ Crimson', 'Blockbuster™ Dark Red', 'Blockbuster™ Mix', 'Blockbuster™ Patriot Mix', 'Blockbuster™ Peppermint', 'Blockbuster™ Punch', 'Blockbuster™ Red With Eye', 'Blockbuster™ White'
      Carpet Sakata Ornamentals 'Rose Carpet', 'Pink Carpet', 'Magic Carpet', 'Dawn Carpet'
      Cobra Syngenta® Flowers (originally developed by Floranova) 'Cobra Apricot', 'Cobra Orchid Eye', 'Cobra Passion Fruit, 'Cobra Peppermint', 'Cobra Purple', 'Cobra Purple Eye', 'Cobra Red', 'Cobra Red Eye', 'Cobra Rose', 'Cobra Strawberry Red', 'Cobra White', 'Cobra Lavender Halo', 'Cobra Mix', 'Cobra Orange'
      Cooler Pan America Seed 'Cooler Apricot', 'Cooler Blush', 'Cooler Coconut', 'Cooler Deep Orchid', 'Cooler Grape', 'Cooler Hot Rose', 'Cooler Icy Pink', 'Cooler Lavender Halo', 'Cooler Mixture', 'Cooler Orchid', 'Cooler Orchid Deep', 'Cooler Peppermint', 'Cooler Peppermint Improved', 'Cooler Pink', 'Cooler Raspberry Red', 'Cooler Red', 'Cooler Rose', 'Cooler Strawberry'
      Cora® Cascade XDR Syngenta® Flowers 'Cora® Cascade XDR Apricot', 'Cora® Cascade XDR Bright Rose', 'Cora® Cascade XDR Lavender with Eye', 'Cora® Cascade XDR Lilac', 'Cora® Cascade XDR Mix', 'Cora® Cascade XDR Polka Dot', 'Cora® Cascade XDR Punch', 'Cora® Cascade XDR Shell Pink', 'Cora® Cascade XDR Strawberry', 'Cora® Cascade XDR Violet', 'Cora® Cascade XDR White'
      Cora® XDR Syngenta® Flowers 'Cora® XDR Apricot', 'Cora® XDR Cranberry', 'Cora® XDR Deep Strawberry', 'Cora® XDR Hotgenta', 'Cora® XDR Light Pink', 'Cora® XDR Magenta Halo', 'Cora® XDR Mix', 'Cora® XDR Orchid', 'Cora® XDR Pink Halo', 'Cora® XDR Polka Dot', 'Cora® XDR Red Glow', 'Cora® XDR Rose Punch', 'Cora® XDR White'
      First Kiss Benary 'First Kiss Apricot', 'First Kiss Blueberry', 'First Kiss Blush', 'First Kiss Cherry red', 'First Kiss Coral', 'First Kiss Icy Pink', 'First Kiss Orchid', 'First Kiss Peach', 'First Kiss Polka Dot', 'First Kiss Raspberry', 'First Kiss Rose', 'First Kiss Ruby', 'First Kiss Sunrise', 'First Kiss Think Pink', 'First Kiss White'
      Heat Wave HEM Genetics (originally developed by John Bodger & Sons Co.) 'Heatwave Apricot', 'Heatwave Blue W/Eye', 'Heatwave Burgundy', 'Heatwave Cherry', 'Heatwave Deep Rose', 'Heatwave Formula Mixture', 'Heatwave Grape', 'Heatwave Midnight Mix', 'Heatwave Orchid', 'Heatwave Peach', 'Heatwave Peppermint', 'Heatwave Pink', 'Heatwave Raspberry', 'Heatwave Red', 'Heatwave Rose', 'Heatwave Santa Fe', 'Heatwave Southwest Mix', 'Heatwave White'
      Jaio Murakami Seed Co., Ltd. 'Jaio Bicolor Deep Rose', 'Jaio Cherry Red', 'Jaio Dark Red', 'Jaio Vermillion', 'Jaio Vermillion Eye', 'Jaio Peppermint', 'Jaio White', 'Jaio Salmon Pink', 'Jaio Sky Blue'
      Little Syngenta® flowers 'Little Linda', 'Little Salmon', 'Little Blanche', 'Little Bright Eye', 'Little Delicata', 'Little Pinkie'
      Mediterranean XP Pan America Seed 'Mediterranean XP Burgundy Halo', 'Mediterranean XP Dark Red', 'Mediterranean XP Hot Rose', 'Mediterranean XP Peach', 'Mediterranean XP Red', 'Mediterranean XP Rose Halo', 'Mediterranean XP Strawberry', 'Mediterranean XP White', 'Mediterranean XP Mixture'
      Mega Bloom Ameriseed 'Mega Bloom Dark Red', 'Mega Bloom Polka Dot', 'Mega Bloom White', 'Mega Bloom Lavender', 'Mega Bloom Icy Pink', 'Mega Bloom Strawberry', 'Mega Bloom Burgundy with Eye', 'Mega Bloom Peach Pink', 'Mega Bloom Orchid Halo', 'Mega Bloom Grape', 'Mega Bloom Pink', 'Mega Bloom Red', 'Mega Bloom Raspberry', 'Mega Bloom Apricot'
      Nirvana® XDR Syngenta® Flowers 'Nirvana® XDR Watermelon', 'Nirvana® XDR Coral', 'Nirvana® XDR Apricot Splash', 'Nirvana® XDR Cranberry Halo', 'Nirvana® XDR Blackberry', 'Nirvana® XDR Blush Splash', 'Nirvana® XDR Blue Halo'
      Pacifica XP Pan America Seed 'Pacifica XP Apricot', 'Pacifica XP Blush', 'Pacifica XP Burgundy', 'Pacifica XP Burgundy Halo', 'Pacifica XP Cherry Red Halo', 'Pacifica XP Dark Red', 'Pacifica XP Deep Orchid', 'Pacifica XP Magenta Halo', 'Pacifica XP Orange', 'Pacifica XP Pink', 'Pacifica XP Polka Dot', 'Pacifica XP Punch', 'Pacifica XP Really Red', 'Pacifica XP Red Halo', 'Pacifica XP Rose Halo', 'Pacifica XP White', 'Pacifica XP Bold Mixture', 'Pacifica XP Mixture'
      Soirée® Monrovia 'Soirée® Cerise White Eye', 'Soirée® Hot Pink', 'Soirée® Pink White Eye', 'Soirée® Light Pink Dark Eye', 'Soirée® White'
      Soirée® Crown Monrovia 'Soirée® Crown Pink', 'Soirée® Crown Rose'
      Soirée® Double Suntory flowers 'Soirée® Double Appleblossom', 'Soirée® Double Pure White', 'Soirée® Double Pink Improved', 'Soirée® Double Orchid Improved', 'Soirée® Double White', 'Soirée® Double Pink', 'Soirée® Double Orchid'
      Soirée® Flamenco Suntory flowers 'Soirée® Flamenco Electric Salmon Eye', 'Soirée® Flamenco Strawberry Picotee', 'Soirée® Flamenco Plum Velvet', 'Soirée® Flamenco Salsa Red', 'Soirée® Flamenco Salmon Glow', 'Soirée® Flamenco Cheeky Pink', 'Soirée® Flamenco Senorita Pink', 'Soirée® Flamenco Pink Twist'
      Soirée® Kawaii Suntory flowers 'Soirée® Kawaii Hot Pink', 'Soirée® Kawaii Lilac Dream', 'Soirée® Kawaii Paprika Red', 'Soirée® Kawaii Paprika Red', 'Soirée® Kawaii Berry Blast', 'Soirée® Kawaii Lady Liberty', 'Soirée® Kawaii Blueberry Kiss', 'Soirée® Kawaii Coral Reef', 'Soirée® Kawaii Red Shades', 'Soirée® Kawaii White Peppermint', 'Soirée® Kawaii Light Purple', 'Soirée® Kawaii Pink', 'Soirée® Kawaii Lavender', 'Soirée® Kawaii Coral'
      Solar HEM Genetics 'Solar Apple Blossom', 'Solar Apricot', 'Solar Blueberry', 'Solar Blush Pink', 'Solar Cherry with Eye', 'Solar Formula Mixture', 'Solar Fresh Red', 'Solar Lilac', 'Solar Orange with Eye', 'Solar Orchid with Eye', 'Solar Pink', 'Solar Raspberry with Eye', 'Solar Red', 'Solar Red with Eye', 'Solar White'
      Stardust Pan America Seed 'Stardust Orchid', 'Stardust Pink', 'Stardust Mix', 'Stardust Rose'
      SunStorm® Syngenta® Flowers 'SunStorm® Apricot', 'SunStorm® Blush', 'SunStorm® Bright Red', 'SunStorm® Deep Lilac', 'SunStorm® Deep Orchid', 'SunStorm® Deep Orchid', 'SunStorm® Deep Pink', 'SunStorm® Light Blue', 'SunStorm® Mix', 'SunStorm® Orchid Halo', 'SunStorm® Pure White', 'SunStorm® Purple', 'SunStorm® Red', 'SunStorm® Red Halo', 'SunStorm® Rose With Eye', 'SunStorm® Tropical Mix', 'SunStorm® White With Eye'
      Tattoo™ Pan America Seed 'Tattoo™ Black Cherry', 'Tattoo™ Blueberry', 'Tattoo™ Orange', 'Tattoo™ Papaya', 'Tattoo™ Raspberry', 'Tattoo™ Tangerine', 'Tattoo™ American Pie Mixture'
      Titan-ium™ Pan America Seed 'Titan-ium™ Apricot', 'Titan-ium™ Blush', 'Titan-ium™ Dark Red', 'Titan-ium™ Polka Dot', 'Titan-ium™ Punch', 'Titan-ium™ Really Red', 'Titan-ium™ White', 'Titan-ium™ Mixture'
      Titan™ Pan America Seed 'Titan™ Apricot', 'Titan™ Blush', 'Titan™ Burgundy', 'Titan™ Cranberry', 'Titan™ Dark Red', 'Titan™ Icy Pink', 'Titan™ Lavender Blue Halo', 'Titan™ Lilac', 'Titan™ Polka Dot', 'Titan™ Punch', 'Titan™ Pure White', 'Titan™ Really Red', 'Titan™ Rose', 'Titan™ Rose Halo', 'Titan™ Bubble Gum Mixture', Titan™ 'Clear Mixture', 'Titan™ Mixture', 'Titan™ Summer Breeze Mixture'
      Tropicana University of Connecticut 'Tropicana Apricot', 'Tropicana Blush', 'Tropicana Bright Eye', 'Tropicana Pink', 'Tropicana Rose'
      Valiant™ Pan America Seed 'Valiant™ Apricot', 'Valiant™ Burgundy', 'Valiant™ Lilac', 'Valiant™ Magenta', 'Valiant™ Orchid', 'Valiant™ Punch', 'Valiant™ Pure White', 'Valiant™ Mixture'
      Victory Sakata Ornamentals 'Victory Apricot', 'Victory Blue', 'Victory Bright Eye', 'Victory Carmine', 'Victory Carmine Rose', 'Victory Cranberry', 'Victory Deep Apricot', 'Victory Deep Pink', 'Victory Grape', 'Victory Lavender', 'Victory Light Pink', 'Victory Pure White', 'Victory Purple', 'Victory Red', 'Victory Mix'
      Viper Sahola flowers 'Viper Apricot', 'Viper Grape', 'Viper Orchid Halo', 'Viper Pink', 'Viper Purple', 'Viper Purple Halo', 'Viper Red', 'Viper Red Eye', 'Viper Rose', 'Viper Watermelon'
      Virtuosa Sakata Ornamentals 'Virtuosa White', 'Virtuosa Polka Dot', 'Virtuosa Peach', 'Virtuosa Apricot', 'Virtuosa Deep Purple', 'Virtuosa Raspberry', 'Virtuosa Deep Red', 'Virtuosa Cranberry', 'Virtuosa Lavender', 'Virtuosa Pink', 'Virtuosa Punch', 'Virtuosa Rosa', 'Virtuosa Orchid', 'Virtuosa Mix'
      Vitesse Syngenta flowers (originally developed by Floranova) 'Vitesse Apricot', 'Vitesse Blue', 'Vitesse Dark Red', 'Vitesse Lavender Morn', 'Vitesse Orange', 'Vitesse Peppermint', 'Vitesse Pink', 'Vitesse Purple', 'Vitesse Rose', 'Vitesse Rose Morn', 'Vitesse White'

      Table 1. 

      The major varieties of Madagascar periwinkle.

    • Species Assembled
      genome size (Mb)      		 Contig
      N50 (Mb)      		 Scaffold
      N50 (Mb)      		 BUSCO of
      assembly      		 Chromosome-scale Annotated
      gene number      		 BUSCO of annotation Repeat Ref.
      Catharanthus roseus 541.13 0.08 2.60 96.00% No 34,363 90.70% – Kellner et al.[32]
      C. roseus 581.45 12.20 12.20 97.10% No – – – Cuello et al.[61]
      C. roseus 572.90 2.90 71.90 91.53% Yes 37,297 – – Sun et al.[35]
      C. roseus cv. 'Sunstorm Apricot' 572.20 11.30 71.20 98.50% Yes 26,347 96.10% 70.25% Li et al.[34]
      C. roseus cv. 'Pacifica XP Burgundy' 561.70 20.90 71.10 98.00% Yes 30,085 96.90% 73.71% Xu et al.[33]

      Table 2. 

      Genome assemblies and annotations among sequenced Catharanthus species.