[1]

Li J, Feng S, Wang Y, Li C, Li P, et al. 2025. A primary amoebic meningoencephalitis case suspected to be infected by indoor swimming, China, 2024. Frontiers in Medicine 12:1623909

doi: 10.3389/fmed.2025.1623909
[2]

Chen XT, Zhang Q, Wen SY, Chen FF, Zhou CQ. 2023. Pathogenic free-living amoebic encephalitis from 48 cases in China: a systematic review. Frontiers in Neurology 14:1100785

doi: 10.3389/fneur.2023.1100785
[3]

Ghosh R, León-Ruiz M, Dubey S, Benito-León J. 2025. Naegleria fowleri in Kerala, India: prevention over panic. Lancet 406:1945

doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(25)01971-3
[4]

Gharpure R, Bliton J, Goodman A, Ali IKM, Yoder J, et al. 2021. Epidemiology and clinical characteristics of primary amebic meningoencephalitis caused by Naegleria fowleri: a global review. Clinical Infectious Diseases 73:e19−e27

doi: 10.1093/cid/ciaa520
[5]

Marri AR, Hamer DH, Sherchan S, Shioda K. 2025. Naegleria fowleri and the future of surveillance: a one-health call to action. One Health 21:101215

doi: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2025.101215
[6]

Gharpure R, Gleason M, Salah Z, Blackstock AJ, Hess-Homeier D, et al. 2021. Geographic range of recreational water-associated primary amebic meningoencephalitis, United States, 1978−2018. Emerging Infectious Diseases 27:271−274

doi: 10.3201/eid2701.202119
[7]

Ekici A, Alkan S, Aydemir S, Gurbuz E, Unlu AH. 2022. Trends in Naegleria fowleri global research: a bibliometric analysis study. Acta Tropica 234:106603

doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106603
[8]

Alanazi A, Younas S, Ejaz H, Alruwaili M, Alruwaili Y, et al. 2025. Advancing the understanding of Naegleria fowleri: global epidemiology, phylogenetic analysis, and strategies to combat a deadly pathogen. Journal of Infection and Public Health 18:102690

doi: 10.1016/j.jiph.2025.102690
[9]

Leal dos Santos D, Chaúque BJM, Virginio VG, Cossa VC, Pettan-Brewer C, et al. 2022. Occurrence of Naegleria fowleri and their implication for health − a look under the One Health approaches. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 246:114053

doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2022.114053
[10]

El-Dib NA. 2017. Entamoeba histolytica: an overview. Current Tropical Medicine Reports 4:11−20

doi: 10.1007/s40475-017-0100-z
[11]

Shirley DT, Farr L, Watanabe K, Moonah S. 2018. A review of the global burden, new diagnostics, and current therapeutics for amebiasis. Open Forum Infectious Diseases 5(7):ofy161

doi: 10.1093/ofid/ofy161
[12]

Khan NA, Muhammad JS, Siddiqui R. 2022. Brain-eating amoebae: is killing the parasite our only option to prevent death? Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy 20:1−2

doi: 10.1080/14787210.2021.1927712
[13]

Salazar-Ardiles C, Asserella-Rebollo L, Andrade DC. 2022. Free-living amoebas in extreme environments: the true survival in our planet. BioMed Research International 2022:2359883

doi: 10.1155/2022/2359883
[14]

Güémez A, García E. 2021. Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis by Naegleria fowleri: pathogenesis and treatments. Biomolecules 11(9):1320

doi: 10.3390/biom11091320
[15]

World Health Organization. 2025. Naegleria fowleri: background document for the WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. doi: 10.2471/B09269

[16]

Strassmann JE, Shu L. 2017. Ancient bacteria–amoeba relationships and pathogenic animal bacteria. PLoS Biology 15(5):e2002460

doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2002460
[17]

Price CTD, Hanford HE, Al-Quadan T, Santic M, Shin CJ, et al. 2024. Amoebae as training grounds for microbial pathogens. mBio 15:e0082724

doi: 10.1128/mbio.00827-24
[18]

Loret JF, Jousset M, Robert S, Saucedo G, Ribas F, et al. 2008. Amoebae-resisting bacteria in drinking water: risk assessment and management. Water Science and Technology 58:571−577

doi: 10.2166/wst.2008.423
[19]

Greub G, Raoult D. 2004. Microorganisms resistant to free-living amoebae. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 17:413−433

doi: 10.1128/CMR.17.2.413-433.2004
[20]

Paquet VE, Charette SJ. 2016. Amoeba-resisting bacteria found in multilamellar bodies secreted by Dictyostelium discoideum: social amoebae can also package bacteria. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 92:fiw025

doi: 10.1093/femsec/fiw025
[21]

Denoncourt AM, Paquet VE, Charette SJ. 2014. Potential role of bacteria packaging by protozoa in the persistence and transmission of pathogenic bacteria. Frontiers in Microbiology 5:240

doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00240
[22]

Mba Medie F, Ben Salah I, Henrissat B, Raoult D, Drancourt M. 2011. Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex Mycobacteria as amoeba-resistant organisms. PLoS One 6:e20499

doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020499
[23]

Drancourt M. 2014. Looking in amoebae as a source of mycobacteria. Microbial Pathogenesis 77:119−124

doi: 10.1016/j.micpath.2014.07.001
[24]

Richards AM, Von Dwingelo JE, Price CT, Abu Kwaik Y. 2013. Cellular microbiology and molecular ecology of Legionella-amoeba interaction. Virulence 4:307−314

doi: 10.4161/viru.24290
[25]

Fu MS, Liporagi-Lopes LC, Dos Santos Júnior SR, Tenor JL, Perfect JR, et al. 2021. Amoeba predation of Cryptococcus neoformans results in pleiotropic changes to traits associated with virulence. mBio 12:e00567-21

doi: 10.1128/mbio.00567-21
[26]

Casadevall A, Fu MS, Guimaraes AJ, Albuquerque P. 2019. The 'amoeboid predator-fungal animal virulence' hypothesis. Journal of Fungi 5(1):10

doi: 10.3390/jof5010010
[27]

Leifels M, Dey R, Wiedmann A, Dan C, Kolm C, et al. 2025. Enteric viruses and free-living amoebae: protozoa as potential reservoirs and transport vessels for human norovirus and adenovirus. Water & Ecology 1:100018

doi: 10.1016/j.wateco.2025.100018
[28]

Mattana A, Serra C, Mariotti E, Delogu G, Fiori PL, et al. 2006. Acanthamoeba castellanii promotion of in vitro survival and transmission of coxsackie b3 viruses. Eukaryotic Cell 5:665−671

doi: 10.1128/ec.5.4.665-671.2006
[29]

Barker J, Brown MR. 1994. Trojan horses of the microbial world: protozoa and the survival of bacterial pathogens in the environment. Microbiology 140(Pt 6):1253−1259

doi: 10.1099/00221287-140-6-1253
[30]

Shi Y, Liang M, Zeng J, Wang Z, Zhang L, et al. 2024. Soil amoebae are unexpected hotspots of environmental antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes. Environmental Science & Technology 58:21475−21488

doi: 10.1021/acs.est.4c10455
[31]

Ma L, Liu F, Zhou M, Zhang M, Zheng J, et al. 2025. Amoebae contribute to the diversity and fate of antibiotic resistance genes in drinking water system. Environment International 204:109867

doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2025.109867
[32]

He Z, Wang L, Ge Y, Zhang S, Tian Y, et al. 2021. Both viable and inactivated amoeba spores protect their intracellular bacteria from drinking water disinfection. Journal of Hazardous materials 417:126006

doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126006
[33]

Schuster FL, Visvesvara GS. 2004. Free-living amoebae as opportunistic and non-opportunistic pathogens of humans and animals. International Journal for Parasitology 34:1001−1027

doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2004.06.004
[34]

Visvesvara GS, Moura H, Schuster FL. 2007. Pathogenic and opportunistic free-living amoebae: Acanthamoeba spp., Balamuthia mandrillaris, Naegleria fowleri, and Sappinia diploidea. FEMS Immunology & Medical Microbiology 50:1−26

doi: 10.1111/j.1574-695X.2007.00232.x
[35]

da Rocha-Azevedo B, Tanowitz HB, Marciano-Cabral F. 2009. Diagnosis of infections caused by pathogenic free-living amoebae. Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases 2009:251406

doi: 10.1155/2009/251406
[36]

Chaúque BJM, Dos Santos DL, Anvari D, Rott MB. 2022. Prevalence of free-living amoebae in swimming pools and recreational waters, a systematic review and meta-analysis. Parasitology Research 121:3033−3050

doi: 10.1007/s00436-022-07631-3
[37]

Barnhart EP, Kinsey SM, Wright PR, Caldwell SL, Hill V, et al. 2024. Naegleria fowleri detected in Grand Teton National Park Hot Springs. ACS ES& T Water 4:628−637

doi: 10.1021/acsestwater.3c00650
[38]

Latifi A, Salami M, Kazemirad E, Soleimani M. 2020. Isolation and identification of free-living amoeba from the hot springs and beaches of the Caspian Sea. Parasite Epidemiology and Control 10:e00151

doi: 10.1016/j.parepi.2020.e00151
[39]

da Silva TCB, Chaúque BJM, Benitez GB, Rott MB. 2024. Global prevalence of potentially pathogenic free-living amoebae in sewage and sewage-related environments − systematic review with meta-analysis. Parasitology Research 123:148

doi: 10.1007/s00436-024-08164-7
[40]

Borella da Silva TC, Dos Santos DL, Rott MB. 2023. First report of free-living amoebae in sewage treatment plants in Porto Alegre, southern Brazil. Journal of Water and Health 21:1611−1624

doi: 10.2166/wh.2023.261
[41]

Hu Y, Jiang K, Xia S, Zhang W, Guo J, et al. 2025. Amoeba community dynamics and assembly mechanisms in full-scale drinking water distribution networks under various disinfectant regimens. Water Research 271:122861

doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.122861
[42]

Delafont V, Rodier MH, Maisonneuve E, Cateau E. 2018. Vermamoeba vermiformis: a free-living amoeba of interest. Microbial Ecology 76:991−1001

doi: 10.1007/s00248-018-1199-8
[43]

Siddiqui R, Khan NA. 2014. Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis caused by Naegleria fowleri: an old enemy presenting new challenges. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 8:e3017

doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003017
[44]

Kou Y, Zhang J, Wang D, Cui L, Sun Q, et al. 2025. Rare Naegleria fowleri meningoencephalitis diagnosed via combined molecular biology and metagenomic sequencing techniques: a case report. Infectious Diseases of Poverty 14:69

doi: 10.1186/s40249-025-01347-z
[45]

Grace E, Asbill S, Virga K. 2015. Naegleria fowleri: pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment options. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 59:6677−6681

doi: 10.1128/aac.01293-15
[46]

Ghanchi NK, Jamil B, Khan E, Ansar Z, Samreen A, et al. 2017. Case series of Naegleria fowleri primary ameobic meningoencephalitis from Karachi, Pakistan. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 97:1600−1602

doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.17-0110
[47]

Siddiqui R, Khan NA. 2008. Balamuthia amoebic encephalitis: an emerging disease with fatal consequences. Microbial Pathogenesis 44(2):89−97

doi: 10.1016/j.micpath.2007.06.008
[48]

Bravo FG, Seas C. 2012. Balamuthia mandrillaris amoebic encephalitis: an emerging parasitic infection. Current Infectious Disease Reports 14:391−396

doi: 10.1007/s11908-012-0266-4
[49]

Mohapatra L, Tripathi AS, Prajapati BG, Alka, Mishra D, et al. 2024. Granulomatous amebic encephalitis. In Rising Contagious Diseases: Basics, Management, and Treatments. eds. Amponsah SK, Shegokar R, Pathak YV. USA: Wiley. pp. 378−395 doi: 10.1002/9781394188741.ch27

[50]

Liang Y, Wang W. 2025. A Balamuthia amoebic encephalitis survivor in China, and literature review. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease 111:116698

doi: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2025.116698
[51]

Imam AM, Mahgoub ES. 2008. Blindness due to Acanthamoeba: first case report from Sudan. International Journal of Health Sciences 2:163−166

[52]

Baig AM. 2015. Pathogenesis of amoebic encephalitis: are the amoebae being credited to an 'inside job' done by the host immune response? Acta Tropica 148:72−76

doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2015.04.022
[53]

Król-Turmińska K, Olender A. 2017. Human infections caused by free-living amoebae. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine 24:254−260

doi: 10.5604/12321966.1233568
[54]

Aurongzeb M, Nazir MA, Yasmin R, Kiran A, Fatima R, et al. 2024. Detection and confirmation of Naegleria fowleri in a primary amebic meningoencephalitis patient using a molecular approach. Journal of Parasitology Research 2024:5514520

doi: 10.1155/2024/5514520
[55]

Huang S, Liang XA, Han Y, Zhang Y, Li X, et al. 2021. A pediatric case of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis due to Naegleria fowleri diagnosed by next-generation sequencing of cerebrospinal fluid and blood samples. Infectious Diseases 21:1251

doi: 10.1186/s12879-021-06932-9
[56]

Kofman A, Guarner J. 2022. Infections caused by free-living amoebae. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 60:e00228-21

doi: 10.1128/JCM.00228-21
[57]

Dinda SK, Hazra S, De A, Datta A, Das L, et al. 2024. Amoebae: beyond pathogens − exploring their benefits and future potential. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 14:1518925

doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1518925
[58]

Jin C, Mo Y, Zhao L, Xiao Z, Zhu S, et al. 2022. Host–endosymbiont relationship impacts the retention of bacteria-containing amoeba spores in porous media. Environmental Science & Technology 56:12347−12357

doi: 10.1021/acs.est.2c02899
[59]

Storey MV, Winiecka-Krusnell J, Ashbolt NJ, Stenstrom TA. 2004. The efficacy of heat and chlorine treatment against thermotolerant Acanthamoebae and Legionellae. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases 36:656−662

doi: 10.1080/00365540410020785
[60]

Mai Y, Zheng J, Zeng J, Wang Z, Liu F, et al. 2023. Protozoa as hotspots for potential pathogens in the drinking water of a subtropical megacity: diversity, treatment, and health risk. Environmental Science & Technology 57:6108−6118

doi: 10.1021/acs.est.2c09139
[61]

Maya C, Beltrán N, Jiménez B, Bonilla P. 2003. Evaluation of the UV disinfection process in bacteria and amphizoic amoebae inactivation. Water Supply 3:285−291

doi: 10.2166/ws.2003.0074
[62]

Hijnen WAM, Beerendonk EF, Medema GJ. 2006. Inactivation credit of UV radiation for viruses, bacteria and protozoan (oo)cysts in water: a review. Water Research 40:3−22

doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2005.10.030
[63]

He Z, Zheng N, Zhang L, Tian Y, Hu Z, et al. 2022. Efficient inactivation of intracellular bacteria in dormant amoeba spores by FeP. Journal of Hazardous Materials 425:127996

doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127996
[64]

Zhao H, Zheng J, Huang W, He Z, Huang F, et al. 2024. 'Nano knife' for efficient piezocatalytic inactivation of amoeba spores and their intracellular bacteria: synergetic effect between physical damage and chemical oxidation. Journal of Hazardous Materials 480:136387

doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.136387
[65]

Ou Z, Wang Z, Duan C, Shu L, Hu Z. 2025. Simultaneously disinfection of amoebae, endosymbiotic bacteria, and resistance genes using a novel two-electron water oxidation strategy. Water Research 284:123894

doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2025.123894
[66]

Norouzi M, Saberi R, Niyyati M, Lorenzo-Morales J, Mirjalali H, et al. 2021. Molecular identification of pathogenic free-living amoeba from household biofilm samples in Iran: a risk factor for Acanthamoeba keratitis. Microorganisms 9(10):2098

doi: 10.3390/microorganisms9102098
[67]

Li Y, Qu Y, Yang H, Zhou X, Xiao P, et al. 2023. Combatting biofilms in potable water systems: a comprehensive overview to ensuring industrial water safety. Environmental Microbiology Reports 15:445−454

doi: 10.1111/1758-2229.13207