A comprehensive overview of edible crickets: nutritional composition, health benefits, and safety considerations

Globally, protein consumption and preference patterns are changing, primarily driven by demographic shifts, urbanization, and socioeconomic advancements, particularly in low- and middle-income countries^[1]. The per capita meat consumption has increased by approximately 3% per year since the mid-1990s, particularly in developing and emerging economies^[2]. It is predicted that there will be a sustained increase in meat consumption^[3]. However, the meat industry faces several challenges, including resource depletion, labor shortages, public health consequences, rising operational costs, diseases and biosecurity risks, climatic vulnerabilities, changing consumer demand for healthier and more sustainable products, and environmental concerns such as deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions^[4]. This leads to a shift toward alternative protein sources that have low environmental footprints, while also offering health and economic co-benefits.

Edible insects are commonly consumed in various parts of Africa, Asia, and Latin America, and are emerging as a globally promising solution to fulfill the protein demand. They can offer dietary diversification and nutritional fortification, particularly in regions suffering from hidden hunger^[5]. A study has identified that 2,205 species of insects are consumed across 128 nations^[6]. Insects are rich sources of high-quality proteins, lipids, dietary fibers, and essential micronutrients. Insects offer enhanced feed conversion ratios, shortened life cycles, and higher edible biomass yields, producing significantly lower greenhouse gas emissions. They require minimal inputs of land, water, energy, and feedstocks compared to conventional animal husbandry^[7]. Additionally, insects offer several benefits, including enhanced food security, alternative feed sources, and nutrient-enriched fertilizers that improve agricultural productivity and resilience^[8]. The insect value chain can provide employment opportunities, particularly for marginalized demographics^[9]. Due to these attributes, and increasing consumer demand for eco-friendly proteins, the edible insect sector is expected to experience exponential growth.

It is observed that Africa, China, India, and Thailand consume around 500, 324, 255, and 164 species of edible insects, respectively. These insects belong to the orders Coleoptera (beetles), Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and wasps), Orthoptera (grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets), and Hemiptera (true bugs). This demonstrates that a broad taxonomic spectrum is used for culinary applications^[10]. Among these, Orthopterans, particularly crickets, have emerged as the most widely consumed insects due to their accessibility, palatability, and nutritional density^[11]. Brachytrupes membranaceus (African field cricket), Gryllus similis (Jamaican field cricket), Gryllus bimaculatus (two-spotted cricket), Gryllotalpa orientalis (oriental mole cricket), and Acheta domesticus (house cricket) are consumed across multiple continents for their dietary roles^[10]. In Africa, crickets are used to complement nutrient-poor staples, and address seasonal food shortages^[12]. Similarly, cricket consumption is increasing in Europe, North America, and Australia due to its contributions to nutritional security and sustainability^[13].

Crickets are rich in high-quality proteins, essential amino acids, lipids, particularly monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), as well as mineral elements (e.g., iron, zinc, calcium), carbohydrates, and caloric energy^[7]. The cricket has a biological value of 93.02%, a net protein ratio of 3.04, a protein efficiency ratio of 1.78%, and an amino acid score of 0.91^[14]. Crickets can thrive on agro-byproducts and weeds, promoting waste valorization and environmental remediation^[15].

Despite these advantages, several challenges exist in utilizing crickets as a food source, including variability in nutritional value, sensory perceptions, and the scalability of farming, as well as potential health risks such as allergens or contaminants. Traditional societies use whole crickets, whereas Western consumers prefer processed forms, such as powders or flours, to mitigate visual and textural barriers^[16,17]. The consumer acceptance of edible insects varies and is influenced by cultural norms, neophobia, and familiarity with the product. Thus, this review primarily focuses on the nutritional composition and potential health benefits of edible crickets. Additionally, the manuscript also addresses the safety considerations, consumer acceptance, and regulatory perspectives regarding cricket entomophagy.

A comprehensive literature search was conducted to identify studies related to nutritional, health, and safety prospects of consuming edible crickets. Databases, including Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, EBSCO, and Medline, were searched up to July 2025. The search strategy used a combination of relevant keywords and Boolean operators. The keywords used were: 'entomophagy', 'edible insects', 'insect protein', 'crickets', 'Brachytrupes membranaceus', 'Gryllus similis', 'Gryllus bimaculatus', 'Gryllotalpa orientalis', 'Acheta domesticus', 'nutrition', 'amino acid', 'micronutrients', 'digestibility', 'bioavailability', 'health benefits', 'functional food', 'cardiovascular health', 'metabolic health', 'gut microbiota', 'oxidative stress', 'allergenicity', 'safety', 'consumer acceptance', and 'regulatory aspects'. Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT) were used to combine terms and refine the search for higher precision. In addition to database searches, the reference lists of all included articles and relevant reviews were manually screened to identify additional studies. Only peer-reviewed articles published in English were included. Eligible studies included in vitro and in vivo studies regarding the nutritional composition and bioactive components. Additionally, human clinical studies evaluating physiological effects or health outcomes associated with the consumption of edible crickets were included in the manuscript. Studies focusing exclusively on animal feed, insect farming technologies, or non-nutritional applications were excluded. From the selected studies, relevant information was extracted and presented in a narrative review, while studies related to clinical trials were summarized in Table 1. However, the narrative review may have limitations, including the lack of formal inclusion-exclusion criteria, the absence of meta-analysis, restriction to English-language publications, study quality, and risk of bias.

Edible crickets are a rich source of macronutrients and micronutrients; however, their nutritional profile is not uniform and can vary depending on various factors, including species, developmental stage, habitat, climate, sex, diet, and processing methods. The nutritional compositions of various species of crickets are presented in Table 2. The protein content of house cricket ranges from 15.1% to 75.34%; this wide difference is due to the varied processing conditions. The present study demonstrates that frozen house crickets contain less protein content than dried and defatted ones. Additionally, the crude protein content of dried and partially defatted cricket products was determined using the Kjeldahl method, with a conversion factor of 6.25; however, literature recommends using 5.57 and 5.33, respectively, to account for chitin-derived non-protein nitrogen. This also contributes to the high protein content in these two products^[18]. This highlights that the protein content of crickets is higher than that of roasted goat, broiler chicken, and pork; therefore, it is a potential option for individuals with protein deficiencies^[10]. The protein digestibility of A. Domesticus (adult) ranges from 80.36% to 85.28%^[19,20], which is lower than that of eggs and beef but higher than many plant sources, such as sorghum, wheat, rice, and maize^[7]. However, the oven-drying method results in a reduction in protein digestibility. In vitro DIAAS for blanched A. domesticus was 92, which is lower than that of chicken and balanced Tenebrio molitor larvae. However, there is a significant impact of processing conditions on DIAAS, for example, a reduction in chitin in A. domesticus, resulting in a substantial decrease in DIAAS. This indicates that the protein quality of A. domesticus is excellent, allowing it to be incorporated into the diet of 6-month-old children^[21]. The protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) of cricket powder was reported as 73%, with threonine identified as the first limiting amino acid and a true protein digestibility of 81% in young male weanling albino rats^[14]. A. domesticus and G. bimaculatus are good sources of essential amino acids (EAAs), including valine (3.50–4.50 g/100 g protein), leucine (3.80–3.88 g/100 g), and lysine (2.89–3.22 g/100 g). Crickets can provide lysine (2.89−3.22 g/100 g), threonine (1.65−1.69 g/100 g), and tryptophan (0.27−0.43 g/100 g)^[22], which are deficient in cereal- and tuber-based diets. This demonstrates that crickets can be used to mitigate malnutrition when incorporated into local meals.

The amino acid digestibility demonstrated that during the intestinal phase of in vitro digestion, it clearly indicates that both the nutrient composition and bioavailability differ substantially between cricket protein and whey protein. At the onset of the intestinal phase (0 min), the digestibility of most amino acids in cricket protein ranged between 40%–59%, whereas whey protein exhibited comparatively higher values (approximately 61%–65%), reflecting its inherently higher solubility and susceptibility to enzymatic hydrolysis. Over the digestion period, a progressive increase in digestibility was observed in both samples. However, the rate and extent of digestion was significantly higher for whey protein. After 120 min, the total amino acid digestibility of cricket protein reached 79.64% ± 2.16%, while whey protein achieved near-complete hydrolysis (98.38% ± 2.19%). Essential amino acids digestibility remained lower in cricket protein (78%–82%), compared to whey protein (97%–99%). This may be due to higher content of chitin and complex protein–polysaccharide matrices in insect-derived proteins, which may limit enzymatic accessibility, and thus reduce amino acid bioavailability^[23].

The lipids are composed of triglycerides for energy storage, and phospholipids for cellular functions. The lipid content of crickets ranges from 6–34 g/100 g dry weight, with higher levels observed in nymphs of G. assimilis and lower levels in Acheta Testacea^[10]. The fatty acid composition emphasizes health-promoting unsaturated fats; for example, the range of polyunsaturated fatty acids is 4.33−58.37 g/100 g dry matter^[24,25]. The present study found that the PUFA/SFA ratio of Gryllus testaceus was 3.49, which demonstrates that cricket consumption may reduce low-density lipoprotein cholesterol^[26]. It has been observed that Brachytrupes spp comprises approximately 13.29 ± 1.61 g/100 g dry weight of fiber^[27]. The significant component of edible cricket fiber is insoluble chitin, which is present in the exoskeleton of the edible crickets^[7,28]. Crickets provide 18.10–537.50 kcal/100 g of calories based on dry weight^[10], varying from species to species, such as 18.10 kcal/100 g found in Gryllus testaceus, while other species have a high energy value^[10]. These energy- and protein-rich foods are particularly beneficial for populations suffering from protein-energy malnutrition.

Crickets are a good source of minerals, for example G. bimaculatus had high levels of phosphorus (1,169.6 mg/100 g DM), potassium (1,079.9 mg/100 g DM), sodium (452.99 mg/100 g DM), calcium (240.17 mg/100 g DM), and magnesium (143.65 mg/100 g DM), with zinc (22.43 mg/100 g DM) and manganese (10.36 mg/100 g DM). Similarly, Teleogryllus ema and A. domesticus exhibited relatively good quantities of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, with significant iron (8.75–10.75 mg/100 g DM) and zinc contents (18.47–20.22 mg/100 g DM). Whereas, the iron content of Tarbinskiellus portentosus is 122.5 mg/100 g dry matter. This suggests that it can be used as a dietary intervention for combating iron deficiency^[10]. Cricket adults and nymphs have less than 1,000 IU/kg of vitamin A^[31]. The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of vitamin A for men and women is 3,000 and 2,333 IU/day, respectively^[32]. Studies have shown that the thiamine and riboflavin content of cricket (adult) is 0.4 mg per 100 g, and 3.41 mg per 100 g of dry weight^[31]. Vitamin B12 is essential for neurological function and the production of red blood cells. Cricket adults and nymphs can provide a significant amount of vitamin B12 (5.37–8.72 µg per 100 g)^[31]. The RDA of vitamin B12 is 2.4 to 2.8 µg for adults, and 0.4 to 2.8 µg for infants, children, and adolescents^[33]. This indicates that a 100 g serving of crickets can provide a significantly higher amount of vitamin B12. Thus, the excessive intake of crickets should be monitored to avoid potential adverse effects. Although vitamin B12 has a low risk of toxicity due to its water-soluble nature, it is still advisable to limit intake to prevent potential adverse effects.

There are limited clinical studies that have demonstrated the physiological impacts of cricket consumption (shown in Table 1). In a randomized crossover study, adults consuming 25 g of cricket powder daily (comprising approximately 14.78 g of protein, and 2.21 g of dietary fiber, provided through muffins and shakes) demonstrated significant alterations in gut microbial composition. Levels of Bifidobacterium animalis increased markedly, while certain lactic acid bacteria, including Lactobacillus reuteri, declined. Parallel biochemical analyses indicated reductions in stool short-chain fatty acids such as acetate and propionate, alongside a decrease in circulating tumor necrosis factor-alpha, suggesting potential anti-inflammatory and gut-modulating effects of cricket intake^[34]. Nutritional benefits have also been observed in vulnerable populations. A six-month dietary intervention among preschool-aged children showed that porridge enriched with 5% cricket powder significantly improved hemoglobin concentrations, indicating a positive influence on iron status^[35]. This is particularly relevant in regions with a high burden of anemia, where cricket-based foods may provide a sustainable dietary strategy to enhance micronutrient intake. The bioavailability of key minerals from cricket powder has been further validated through isotope-labeled feeding studies. In iron-depleted women, fractional iron absorption from cricket-based meals was modest yet comparable to conventional dietary sources^[36], while zinc absorption in young Kenyan children consuming cricket-enriched maize meals exceeded that of standard fortified meals^[37]. These results highlight the potential of cricket protein to serve as a vehicle for improving micronutrient nutrition, particularly in populations vulnerable to micronutrient deficiencies. Cricket protein has also been investigated in relation to postprandial amino acid kinetics and satiety regulation. Acute feeding trials in healthy men demonstrated that beverages containing 25 g of cricket protein produced robust increases in circulating leucine, branched-chain amino acids, and essential amino acids, while concurrently reducing hunger ratings^[38]. Similarly, cricket-enriched pancakes, containing 20%–30% flour substitution, were effective in suppressing hunger over a three-hour postprandial window, supporting their use in satiety management^[39]. From a performance nutrition perspective, resistance exercise trials revealed that cricket protein stimulated mTORC1 signaling to a similar degree as whey and pea protein, affirming its capacity to promote anabolic responses essential for muscle recovery and adaptation^[40]. These studies highlight that cricket-based ingredients offer a multifaceted contribution to human diets. Cricket consumption not only increases protein and micronutrient intake but also offers several health benefits, including gut modulation, reduced inflammation, and appetite regulation.

Several studies have investigated the effect of incorporating cricket powder on the sensory properties of various food products. Early consumer-based studies tested snack formulations such as puffed rice fortified with 33% cricket powder, and chili paste containing 25% cricket powder. In both cases, young adult participants reported high acceptance scores, particularly for attributes such as color and aroma. While taste responses reflected modest improvements in perceived sweetness, and relatively lower effects on saltiness and spiciness. These findings suggest that even at moderate inclusion levels, cricket-fortified foods can achieve favorable sensory acceptance without compromising palatability^[41]. Consumer perception trials have additionally demonstrated the role of cricket-based products in shaping attitudes toward insect consumption. When exposed to chocolate beverages containing 30% cricket powder, participants not only rated the products favorably but also reported a measurable decline in feelings of disgust and misconceptions about insects as disease vectors. Importantly, participants became more likely to recommend, purchase, and integrate such products into their diets, reflecting the power of direct exposure in shifting cultural attitudes toward entomophagy^[42].

Traditional cooking methods such as toasting, boiling, frying, steaming, and smoking can be used to prepare cuisines from crickets. Frying is the most common cooking method to improve the sensory attributes of edible insects. Additionally, cooking can inactivate enzymes, kill microorganisms, increase palatability, improve digestibility, and enhance the biological activity of the insect's protein. However, before cooking, it is necessary to remove the intestines, wings, legs, and heads, followed by washing. After washing, the crickets must be processed according to local eating habits^[43]. For example, in India, crickets (Tarbinskiellus orientalis, Tarbinskiellus portentosus, and Teleogryllus occipitalis) are consumed in various forms, including cooked (with bamboo shoots and local spices), deep-fried, and boiled. In contrast, the Naga tribes use a traditional way of preparing crickets. They mixed the salt, dry bamboo shoots, and crickets, then stuffed them into bamboo pipes and enclosed them in a banana leaf. Afterwards, they were cooked over a fire for 20−30 min^[44].

In a study, Henicus whellani were cooked using various techniques, including boiling, roasting, or a combination of boiling and roasting. These cooking methods are commonly used in Zimbabwe. The study found that boiling crickets resulted in the loss of protein, a reduction in protein digestibility, and a loss of minerals; therefore, it was concluded that roasting is a more suitable method of cooking^[45]. In Thailand, live insects were cleaned and toasted for 5 min in a hot, non-frying pan with regular stirring. Similarly, smoking is another method of cooking used to cook, dry, and provide a smoky flavor. Additionally, this method preserves the insects by reducing the pH and preventing the growth of microorganisms. Crickets are fried in vegetable oil or animal fat at a temperature of 170–210 °C for cooking^[46−48].

Crickets such as A. domesticus and G. bimaculatus have emerged as promising edible insects for improving the nutritional, functional, and sensory properties of various baked products. In sourdough bread (SDB) production, fermentation of A. domesticus powder with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum ATCC 8014 has been shown to increase the organic acid levels (e.g., acetic, lactic, and oxalic acids) while reducing citric acid content. Fermentation for 24 h resulted in increased mineral bioavailability, amino acid content, and the production of aromatic volatile compounds^[49]. Spontaneous fermentation of cricket powder (CRIP) facilitates the isolation of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains, including Enterococcus durans, Lactococcus garvieae, Latilactobacillus curvatus, L. plantarum, L. sakei, and Weissella confusa. Incorporation of 20% CRIP into wheat flour doughs using these strains increases the lipid content (from 0.7 to 6 g/100 g), and protein content (up to 94%) in the bread, highlighting spontaneous fermentation as a potential method for developing nutritionally improved bread^[50]. SDB developed with CRIP hydrolysate fermented by Yarrowia lipolytica RO25 exhibits increased levels of free fatty acids and proteins, which are attributed to the yeast's lipolytic and proteolytic activities, as well as a reduced biogenic amine index. The developed SDB demonstrated an acceptable level of sensory attributes^[51]. Optimized fermentation of CRIP with L. plantarum No. 122 achieves high LAB counts (8.24 log CFU/g) and a pH of 4.26, reducing total biogenic amines by 13.1%, while wheat bread enriched with 10%–30% fermented CRIP exhibits superior specific volume, sensory acceptability, and lower acrylamide levels at 10% inclusion. However, higher concentrations may increase acrylamide content^[52]. Whole wheat breads fortified with CRIP (up to 20%) have shown an increased level of ash (2.09%–2.33%), protein (18.97%–25.94%), and fat (10.91%–15.07%), as well as darker crumb, firmer texture, and high consumer acceptance^[53].

In fermented probiotic beverages, the incorporation of cricket protein hydrolysates (CPH) has been demonstrated to improve both the physicochemical and nutritional properties. For example, enrichment with CPH significantly increases viscosity, reduces pH, and increases titratable acidity, while maintaining viable probiotic counts above 8.45 log CFU/mL over 5 months of refrigerated storage at 4 °C. This stability is attributed to the antimicrobial effects of organic acids produced during fermentation, which inhibit the growth of spoilage microorganisms. Furthermore, fermented CPH-enriched beverages exhibit an increase in low molecular weight (LMW) peptides (< 260 Da), reaching 74.7% after storage, compared to 59.9% in the non-enriched product, indicating continuous proteolysis that enhances bioavailability. In vitro gastrointestinal simulations found high probiotic survival rates (up to 83%) in CPH-enriched formulations, highlighting their potential as functional foods for gut health^[54]. A Colombian traditional beverage (chucula) is fortified with 4.6% cricket flour (CR), which results in altered granulometry, increased particle size at 150 μm, elevated water activity (a_w), and reduced solubility. Sensory evaluations indicate a 74% liking for CR-enriched chucula, characterized by a milky brown appearance, a cocoa aroma, and a sweet-nutty flavor, with emotions evoked including adventurousness and enthusiasm. However, neophobia scores are higher among consumers over 45 years old, although overall values below 2.5 suggest opportunities for integrating familiar products^[55].

In recent years, the consumption pattern of edible insects has increased. However, in many countries, there is no regulation governing the use and rearing of edible insects, which raises special concerns about food safety issues. There are three different types of hazards commonly associated with edible insects, including chemical, biological, and allergenic hazards^[56]. During the rearing of insects, there is a high risk of contamination, which can be influenced by various factors, including the insect species, developmental stage, substrate used, and production method^[57]. A significant component of crickets is protein, which means there is a chance of an allergic reaction in some people. The field cricket contains Hexamerin B1, an allergenic protein^[58]. Arginine kinase is considered an allergen, and exposure to it may cause skin reactions, respiratory issues, and systemic symptoms in some individuals. It was observed that thermal processing (frying) may reduce the arginine kinase in Bombay locust^[59]. It can be assumed that similar changes may occur in crickets with thermal processing; however, further studies are necessary.

Additionally, α-amylase and tropomyosin are the other common allergens of edible crickets^[60,61]. A study has found that 19% of people in Belgium are sensitive to grilled A. domesticus. This highlights that people are at high risk of developing allergic reactions upon consumption of A. domesticus^[62]. To minimize the health risk, all food products containing crickets are labeled appropriately^[60]. The label should explicitly declare the presence of cricket-derived ingredients, and include a clear allergen warning statement to inform consumers about potential allergic reactions, particularly for individuals sensitive to crustaceans, dust mites, or other related allergens. Such mandatory labeling ensures transparency, consumer safety, and regulatory compliance in the commercialization of edible insect products.

Studies have reported that entomophagy may cause microbial foodborne infections and intoxications^[62]. Edible insects can be contaminated with Citrobacter spp., Fusobacterium spp., Salmonella spp., Yersinia spp., Bacteroides spp., and Escherichia coli^[63−65]. Therefore, good manufacturing and hygiene practices should be used across all the unit operations (from farm to fork) to protect consumers. Additionally, controlled rearing conditions and thermal processing are crucial in minimizing the risk of pathogenic microorganisms and spoilage, thereby ensuring the microbiological safety and quality of edible cricket-based products.

In crickets, heavy metals such as cadmium and mercury can accumulate^[60]. Whereas, in a study, cadmium, arsenic, chromium, lead, and tin were found in acceptable levels for human consumption^[66]. According to EFSA, no toxic compounds are present in crickets^[67], as they lack specific organs for producing toxic compounds^[67,68]. Similarly, a study has shown that administering 5,000 mg/kg of cricket powder does not produce any adverse effects^[69]. These points highlight that crickets are generally safe to consume.

Edible crickets are a good source of protein, essential amino acids, fiber, minerals, and vitamins; thus, they can be used as an adjunct therapy to alleviate the risk of nutrient deficiency. Apart from their nutritional composition, clinical studies have shown the potential role of crickets in enhancing zinc and iron absorption, modulating gut microbiota, reducing inflammatory markers, and improving satiety responses. Cricket protein can stimulate mTORC1 signaling and play a crucial role in muscle protein metabolism. However, to date, there are limited clinical studies. Therefore, well-designed clinical studies are needed to explore the potential of edible crickets in managing anemia and micronutrient deficiencies, modulating gut microbiota and inflammation, addressing obesity, diabetes, and inflammatory bowel disorders, enhancing satiety and weight management, and stimulating muscle protein synthesis. Additionally, cohort studies focused on the long-term impact of consuming edible insects should be conducted.

Crickets are considered safe to consume; however, it is crucial to maintain appropriate rearing practices and processing technologies. Therefore, exploring optimal processing conditions to reduce allergenicity, anti-nutritional factors, and microbial risk will be essential to increase consumer acceptance. Additionally, regulatory guidelines must be strengthened to optimize the farming practice, handling, processing, and labelling practices are required to ensure consumer safety and to build consumer trust.